The Changing Debate on Internationalisation of Higher Education

Internationalisation, the growing border-crossing activities between national systems of higher education is losing ground to globalisation, increasing border-crossing activities of blurred national systems which is often employed to depict world-wide trends and growing global competition. This article addresses recent issues of knowledge transfer. It points out tensions between increasing diversity in higher education and efforts to facilitate recognition of prior studies on student mobility. It shows the diversity of steering and management policies with respect to internationalisation and globalisation. Finally, it asks whether globalisation of higher education has to be viewed as a manifestation of turbo-capitalism or could be viewed instead as a move towards global understanding.     

Infusing humanistic activities into cognitively oriented curriculum

In our current quest for excellence, we often miss the essential nature of it. It is trendy to use such terms as back-to-basics, gifted education, and excellence to describe a new teaching strategy or innovative educational program. It is also true that many of these programs designed for children are really intended to benefit others.Harry Morgan is Chairman of Early Childhood Education at West Georgia College in Carrollton. He is author ofThe Learning Community (Charles Merrill).     

“The good university teacher” as perceived by the students

Many universities, recognizing the student as the main consumer of college instruction, have begun to seek his views regarding the quality of teaching. In this study the Israeli student's concept of a good teacher has been investigated. A sample of second year university students were asked to select the three most important characteristics of a good teacher from a list of fifteen.It was shown that students attached primary importance to method of instruction. Of secondary importance was the teacher's ability to spark intellectual growth. Research talents, personality, and academic status were of relatively little concern. Social science, life science, law and medical students all concurred in emphasizing the importance of the teacher's ability to communicate ideas, whereas humanities students stressed his ability to stimulate thinking.It appears that undergraduate students rate teachers by their ability to transmit knowledge rather than according to the university's criteria of research and publication.The concepts good teacher and effective instruction are used interchangeably in this article, although they are not identical.     

Training,stability and control

This paper presents a system-theoretic approach to the analysis of the problem of training formally relating it to the control of an abstract dynamic system, the adaption automaton of the trainee. The utility of this formulation and the possibility of basing real training strategies upon it are discussed, and it is argued that further constraints upon the automaton are both necessary, and available, in so far as the theory corresponds to practical reality. The minimal constraints generate an extended theory in which training is related to the stability of the adaption automaton. More practical constraints lead to theoretical foundations for strategies of feedback or adaptive training. Corresponding to each set of constraints a training theorem is proved which demonstrates that the constraint is adequate to lead to a simple universal training strategy.Although this paper is highly theoretical it is argued that the formal concepts introduced correspond to intuitive models of the phenomena of learning and training which are implicit in the design of many training systems. It is hoped that the formal analysis will throw new light on these implicit assumptions and help to clarify discussion of practical approaches to training, including the possibility of computer-aided instruction given on our present level of knowledge of human cognitive skills or individual students.     

Using problem solving teaching styles to prepare candidates for the CXC basic proficiency examinations

Two Grade 10 classes in an urban Jamaican High School were taught over a period of one academic year in two problem solving styles: an Explicit Style derived from Charles, and an Implicit Style derived from Isaacs. At the end of the academic year there was no significant difference in their performance on a problem solving test, or on the Problem Solving Profile of the Caribbean Examinations Council's Basic Proficiency papers. The two classes performed much better than the population who sat the Basic papers on the tasks measuring Recall and Algorithmic Thinking but only moderately better than the population on tasks measuring Problem Solving.The teaching project described in this paper was supported in part by grants from the Research and Publications Fund Committee of the University of the West Indies (Mona), and the Wolmers Trust, Kingston. The author wishes to thank the Registrar and the Pro-Registrar of the Caribbean Examinations Council for permission to use the CXC papers and data in this study. A modified version of this paper was presented at the 63rd Annual Conference of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics held in San Antonio, Texas in 1985.     

The curriculum potential of Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Unity and diversity are best reconciled by Darwin's Theory of Evolution. Two major dilemmas related to the study of Evolution are described. The first, concerning pedagogy, can be solved by teaching the topic at an elementary level in the middle school so that the Theory may serve as an advanced oragnizer and returning with in-depth study in the last two years of high school. The second, concerning Faith, is a sensitive issue. Some successful approaches are discussed. The place of Darwin's Theory in the all-elective high school biology curriculum is described as well. The role of the Theory regarding explanations is especially highlighted.     

A Textbook Case of the Nature of Science: Laws and Theories in the Science of Biology

The two concepts law and theory are among the most important elements of the nature of science. They represent both the tools and products of science itself. Unfortunately, the variable meanings and use of these terms in general discourse and in other school disciplines results in much confusion with respect to their proper application in a science context. The project included the design of a six-part model definition for law and theory based on a review of the literature of the philosophy of science with special reference to biology. These model definitions were then compared with those provided in a range of U.S. secondary school biology textbooks. The majority of all current major U.S. secondary school biology texts were reviewed and analyzed with respect to how the concepts of law and theory were defined and applied, in an attempt to determine whether students and teachers using such texts would gain an accurate impression of these terms and the distinction between them. This study focuses on biology instruction since a life science course is completed as a graduation requirement by virtually all U.S. high school students and as such serves as a widely shared educational experience across the nation. The term law is rarely defined in any text but various laws such as those found in genetics are frequently included as examples. The term theory is frequently defined but with a wide range of completeness of the definitions. Only rarely are theories in biology included as examples.     

The erosion of moral education

This paper discusses two closely related themes: first, the lack of provision of moral education; second, the loss of moral direction in society. The author argues that a proper moral education is one that provides an adequate understanding of the moral sphere, just as the study of mathematics involves acquiring a grasp of mathematical thinking. While moral norms appear to differ from one culture to another, the author contends that there is a basic commonality at the level of essential moral principles. The paper concludes by arguing against any system where rights — particularly those of any loosely definable minority — restrict the freedom of others. The author laments that justice has become limited to a political definition of what is just. Thus politics has replaced morality as the arbiter of our behaviour.

---

Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel diskutiert zwei eng miteinander verknüpfte Themen: zum ersten den Mangel an moralischer Bildung, zum zweiten den Verlust einer moralischen Richtschnur in der Gesellschaft. Der Autor argumentiert, daß eine sinnvolle moralische Erziehung zu entsprechendem Verständnis der moralischen Sphäre führe, so wie das Studium der Mathematik die Erfassung des mathematischen Denkens einschließe. Während sich moralische Normen anscheinend von einer Kultur zur anderen unterscheiden, behauptet der Autor, daß es auf der Ebene der wesentlichen moralischen Prinzipien eine grundlegende Gemeinsamkeit gibt. Der Artikel schließt mit einer Argumentation gegen jedes System, wo Rechte — insbesondere jene einer jeglichen lose definierbaren Minderheit — die Freiheit anderer begrenzen. Der Autor beklagt, daß der Begriff Gerechtigkeit zu einer politischen Definition dessen, was richtig ist, eingeschränkt worden ist. So hat die Politik die Moral als Leitfaden unseres Verhaltens ersetzt.

---

Résumé Cet article traite de deux sujets intimement liés: l'absence d'éducation morale d'une part, et la perte d'orientation morale dans notre société d'autre part. L'auteur explique qu'une éducation morale appropriée est celle qui permet d'appréhender la sphère morale tout comme l'étude des mathématiques implique de saisir la pensée mathématique. Bien que les normes de moralité semblent varier d'une culture à l'autre, l'auteur soutient qu'il existe une base commune au niveau des principes moraux essentiels. Il argumente dans sa conclusion contre tout systéme dans lequel les droits — et plus précisément ceux de toute minorité quelconque — entravent la liberté des autres. L'auteur déplore le fait que la justice en soit réduite à une définition politique de ce qui est juste et que la politique ait remplacé la moralité pour arbitrer notre comportement.

---

Sumario Este trabajo trata de dos temas estrechamente relacionados entre sí: en primer lugar, la carencia de educación moral, y en segundo lugar, la pérdida de orientación moral en la sociedad. El autor sostiene que una educación moral apropiada es aquella que provea un entendimiento adecuado de la esfera moral, así como con el estudio de las matemáticas se adquiere un entendimiento del pensamiento matemático. Si bien las normas morales aparentemente difieren de una cultura a la otra, el autor opina que existe una base común en el nivel de los principios morales esenciales. Al final del trabajo se manifesta contra todo sistema en el que los derechos — en especial, aquellos de toda minoría vagamente definible — restrinjan la libertad de los demás. El autor lamenta que la justicia haya quedado limitada a una definición política de lo que es justo. En consecuencia, la política ha suplantado a la moralidad como árbitro de nuestra conducta.

     

Namewriting: A step toward writing and reading

Teacher, I can read all the names on the locker, said Nikki, and to her teacher's amazement, she did. The teacher had expected this class of three year olds to learn to recognize their own names, but she hadn't forseen that some would learn all the other children's names as well.Sally Hruska, a former early education teacher, is a doctoral student at Michigan State University in Lansing. The teachers from Marquette-Alger Head Start provided many of the teaching ideas in this article.     

Some theories of college instruction

On the assumption that colleges need a theory which specifies what they should be trying to do and how they should do it, two popular theories of this sort are described. Bundle of knowledge theory rests on the idea that education should impart pieces of knowledge which can be assessed by behavioral criteria with methods based on established principles of learning. Developmental stage theory holds that education should help students move through a sequence of general stages towards maturity. A third theory called component theory, is then sketched, in which the idea of general stages is disputed and the idea of component abilities of intellectual processes substituted. This theory has implications which are similar to those of stage theory if it is combined with certain moral assumptions about the goals of college education, namely that its purpose is to help students form and pursue life plans which are both rational and just.     

“It's Easier to Be Yourself When You Are Invisible”: Female College Students Discuss Their Online Classroom Experiences

There has been considerable scholarly interest in issues related to gender in the classroom, especially in terms of finding ways in which classrooms might be configured to be more welcoming--and less chilly--to female students. There is some evidence to suggest that the online learning environment may provide educators with opportunities to achieve a more female-friendly classroom, and this study was designed to gather information about that question. 125 female college students who had completed at least one online, college-level class were invited to discuss their experiences learning online. These data show that female college students respond to the online environment in a variety of ways. A small group of students indicated that they did not enjoy learning online, while others expressed mixed feelings. The majority, however, had positive things to say about their online classroom experiences; and of these, a large number identified anonymity as the most important positive aspect of the online learning environment.     

The effects of educational reform on the content and status of the social subjects in England and wales and the USA: A case study

Over the past decade educational reform has been taking place in the USA and in England and Wales. This paper traces the political pressures to change the social subjects curriculum on both sides of the Atlantic. In England and Wales the new National Curriculum aims to raise educational standards and to increase accountability through a national assessment system. In the USA the Federal Government has set to work on establishing national goals. There is evidence in both countries that the new curricula are emerging from a political process which imposes content and structures upon teachers with little consultation. The paper concentrates on how the social studies curriculum has been affected in this process. It explores the politics of curricular reform by comparing events in the USA and England and Wales and outlines the ways, particularly in the British context, in which the teaching profession has explored the limits of its power and has fought back against central control to make its voice heard.

---

Zusammenfassung In den letzten zehn Jahren gab es eine Bildungsreform in den USA, sowie in England und Wales. Dieser Bericht studiert den politischen Druck, der zu einer Änderung des Curriculums in den Sozialfächern auf beiden Seiten des Atlantiks geführt hat. In England und Wales soll das neue nationale Curriculum den Bildungsstandard anheben und die Verantwortlichkeit durch ein nationales Bewertungssystem steigern. In den USA begann die Bundesregierung mit der Festsetzung nationaler Ziele, die den Lehrern Inhalte und Strukturen mit wenig Mitbestimmungsrecht auferlegt. Der Artikel konzentriert sich auf die Auswirkungen dieses Prozesses auf das Curriculum der Sozialstudien. Er untersucht die Politik der Curriculums-Reform, in dem Ereignisse in den USA, England und Wales verglichen werden. Insbesondere im britischen Kontext werden Wege aufgezeigt, auf denen der Lehrberuf die Grenzen seiner Macht erforscht und sich gegen eine zentrale Kontrolle gewehrt hat, um Aufmerksamkeit auf sich zu ziehen.

---

Resumen Durante la última década se ha realizado una reforma de la educación en los EEUU, Inglaterra y Gales. Este trabajo esboza las presiones políticas de cambiar los planes de estudio de los sujetos sociales a ambos lados de Atlántico. En Inglaterra y Gales, elNew National Curriculum aspira a crear estándares de la educación y a incrementar la responsabilidad a través de un sistema nacional de valoración. En los EEUU, el Gobierno Federal ha comenzado a trabajar en la fijación de objetivos nacionales. Es evidente que en ambos países los nuevos planes de estudios están emergiendo de un proceso político que impone contenidos y estructuras a los maestros, consultándolos poco o nada. El trabajo se concentra en el impacto que ha sufrido el curriculo de estudios sociales en este proceso. Explora la política de la reforma curricular comparando acontecimientos de los EE UU y de Inglaterra y Gales y proporciona una idea general de los modos, particularmente en el contexto británico, en los que la profesión de enseñanza ha explorado los límites du su poder y se ha defendido contra el control central para hacerse escuchar.

---

Résumé Au cours de la dernière décennie, une réforme éducative a été engagée aux Etats-Unis, en Angleterre et au pays de Galles. Cet article retrace les pressions politigues qui ont été exercées pour remanier les thèmes sociaux dans les programmes des deux côtés de l'Atlantique. En Angleterre et au pays de Galles, le nouveau curriculum national a pour but d'élever les niveaux de l'enseignement et d'augmenter la responsabilité par un système national d'évaluation. Aux Etats-Unis, le gouvernement fédéral a entrepris d'établir des objectifs nationaux. Il est évident que dans les deux pays, les nouveaux programmes sont nés d'un processus politique qui a imposé aux enseignants des contenus et des structures en les consultant à peine. L'article se concentre sur les retombées de ce processus sur les programmes d'études sociales. Il étudie la politique de la réforme curriculaire en comparant les événements intervenus aux Etats-Unis et en Angleterre-pays de Galles et souligne, en particulier dans le contexte britannique, la façon dont le corps enseignant a épuisé les limites de son pouvoir et a résisté au contrôle central pour se faire entendre.

---

, . . , , . , . , , , . , . , , , , .

     

Education and the Contested Meanings of ‘Global Citizenship’

This article examines the oftentaken-for-granted educational policy and curricular discourses of globalization and global citizenship within their larger cultural, political, and economically uneven histories and unequal consequences. Drawing upon evidence from recent scholarship on the implications for classroom pedagogy embodied inefforts to internationalize curricula in the North American university contexts, as well as specific related efforts in one Canadian context, the University of British Columbia,this article unpacks the contested meanings of global citizenship from above and below.The author analyzes three dominant curricular discourses of global citizenship. Far from weakening the Canadian state and building instances of transnational democratic educational communities, these dominant discourses may actually reinforce notions of Canadian gendered and racialized nation-building and nationalism. The article raises questions about what an alternative curricular and educational policy discourse from below premised upon efforts to decolonize curricula might look like. By way of provisional conclusion, the author discusses some promising examples of such an alternative,showing how they depend on seeing the relations between the local and global neither as fixed abstractions nor as a slogan system to be applied in absolutist racial, geographical,national, or culturally essentialist terms.     

The Frontier of Web-based Instruction

In spite of advances in course design software and experience with online offerings, the question of how web-based education affects teaching and learning remains largely unanswered, and the terrain of online learning remains largely unmapped. In this paper, through the stories of 10 faculties of education and one computer science instructor in Ontario, we map out a small piece of the frontier of web-based course delivery and plot a course for future exploration. We argue that most existing offerings take the form of a Lone Ranger or Greenhorn approach but that there is a need to move toward a strategic institutional Wagon Train approach that consolidates and integrates support for online teaching and learning. We argue, as well, that failures in online instruction cannot simply be attributed to improper instruction or inappropriate course design. Rather, at least part of the problem locates in the ways in which conversation is structured in the online environment.     

Equity issues in local resourcing of education: Community financing of primary schools in Bhutan

Community financing is an important source of supplementary funds for education, particularly where governments are unable to meet all the needs of their peoples. While this is widely recognised, little empirical research has been conducted on the topic. This paper analyses patterns in Bhutan. It observes that until the 1990s few resources for education were provided by communities, but that the scale of financing has increased during the present decade. The paper notes that although communities have in general responded positively to government calls for local inputs, local resourcing has some problematic aspects. The paper focuses particularly on issues of regional, rural/urban and socio-economic equity, and shows how discussion of Bhutanese experiences contributes to the international literature.

---

Zusammenfassung Finanzierungen über die Gemeinde sind eine wichtige Quelle der Bezuschussung von Bildung, besonders dort, wo Regierungen nicht in der Lage sind, den Bedürfnissen der Bevölkerung gerecht zu werden. Obwohl dies weitreichend bekannt ist, gibt es kaum empirische Studien zu diesem Thema. Dieser Artikel befaßt sich mit der Situation in Bhutan. Es wird festgestellt, daß die Gemeinden bis zu den 90ern kaum Gelder für die Bildung zur Verfügung stellten, daß aber der Rahmen der Finanzierung in diesem Jahrzehnt gestiegen ist. Der Autor beschreibt, daß trotz einer allgemein positiven Antwort seitens der Gemeinden auf Forderungen der Regierung nach lokalen Finanzbeiträgen, Probleme hinsichtlich lokaler Finanzierungen bestehen. Insbesondere befaßt sich der Artikel mit Themen über regionale, ländliche und städtische und sozialökonomische Gleichheit und zeigt, wie die Diskussion über die Erfahrungen in Bhutan zur internationalen Literatur beiträgt.

---

Resumen La financiación a través de la comunidad es una fuente importante de recursos adicionales para la educación, particularmente allí donde los gobiernos son incapaces de satisfacer todas las necesidades de sus habitantes. Si bien este es un hecho ampliamente conocido, existen muy pocos estudios empíricos sobre este tema. El trabajo analiza los modelos existentes en Bhután y observa que hasta los años noventa, eran pocos los recursos financieros provistos por las comunidades, mientras que durante la década actual han aumentado estos niveles de financiación. El estudio observa que, a pesar de que las comunidades, en general, han respondido de forma positiva a las llamadas del gobierno a realizar inversiones locales, la creación de recursos locales tiene algunos aspectos problemáticos. El trabajo se concentra particularmente en problemas de equidad regional, rural/urbana y socioeconómica, demostrando cómo la discusión sobre experiencias bhutanesas presta su aporte a la literatura internacional.

---

Résumé Le financement communautaire représente une source importante de fonds supplémentaires pour l'éducation, en particulier quand le gouvernement ne peut répondre à tous les besoins de la population. Bien que ce fait soit largement reconnu, il n'existe que peu de recherche empirique sur le sujet. Cet article analyse différents modèles existant au Bhoutan. Il constate tout d'abord que jusque dans les années 90, les communautés ne fournissaient qu'une faible partie des ressources de l'éducation, mais que cette forme de financement a augmenté au cours de la dernière décennie. Il relève également qu'en dépit de la réaction généralement positive de la part des communautés envers l'incitation du gouvernement à un financement local, ce modèle présente néanmoins des difficultés. L'article se concentre d'autre part sur les questions d'équitabilité entre régions, entre villes et provinces et entre niveaux socioéconomiques, et révèle que la discussion sur les expériences du Bhoutan contribue à enrichir la littérature internationale.

---

, , . , . . , 1990- , . , , . , , iqa- . , .

     

Strategies for enhancing learning in the “blow-off” course

Lower division courses are typically perceived by students as blow-off courses. We can overcome this image. This paper contrasts active and passivelearning environments, and describes efforts to create an active, critical learning environment in both Introduction to Sociology and The Family System-typical lower division courses in Sociology. A review of grade distributions, quantitative course evaluations, qualitative course evaluations, and a survey asking students to subjectively compare the active learning course structure to the typical multiple choice format provide evaluation data. Finally, the paper discusses problems in using these innovations.Randy Stoecker recently received a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Minnesota, and has been exploring alternative pedagogies since 1982. He has published in the areas of social theory and social movements. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Midwest Sociological Society Annual Meetings, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1988. Many thanks for insightful comments by Tuck Green, Ron Berger, and an anonymousInnovative Higher Education referee.     

Three-dimensional art and sculpture

I am making it BIG (Evan). A secret slide with gold in there (Sydni). Look even a little car could fit in it (Joshua). This is a circle! Round, a tiger jumps through this hoop (Emily). Excitement runs high when children experiment with three-dimensional art projects using paper, boxes and styrofoam.Liz Seelhoff Byrum teaches four- and five-year-olds at a private school in New York City.     

Emigration,internationalization, and “brain drain”: Propensities among British Academics

This research links two important higher education phenomena: potential brain drain among academics abroad and the U.S. academic labor market. The inquiry draws on the brain drain literature and is grounded primarily on a secondary analysis of a major survey (1989) of British university and polytechnic faculty members. The anlaysis shows that fully 40.0 percent of university faculty are seriously considering a move abroad with the substantial majority favoring the United States as a destination. Faculty characteristics—including academic field, research versus teaching orientation, rank, age, gender, and political identification—are correlated with faculty members' professed interest in emigration. The analysis also compares (former) polytechnic to university faculty as well as to a subset of Oxford and Cambridge faculty.     

Education of the refugee in the United States

Conclusion This historical survey of the educational goals developed on behalf of the immigrant and refugee in America indicates that there has been a complete cycle. The first systematic educational efforts, as we have shown, were aimed at teaching the immigrant the English language so that he would be useful for his tasks in American industry. Then came the period which extended this educational goal by offering instruction in several aspects of acculturation (officially, assimilation, but a concept which has never been put into effect in the history of America's minorities). The post-war period saw the stress on the academic level on the cultural democracy concept; but this ideal has been more academic than practical, and World War II saw no definite evidences of the popular interest in any Americanization program. The recent waves of refugees, bringing in more or less well-educatedindividuals, saw a revival of educational efforts on their behalf; but they differ from the former endeavors in their emphasis on individual education and on instruction in English. The social aspects of acculturation — featuring, in general, the period between World War I and II — have been entirely ignored 1).     

La Croissance des depenses publiques d'education en Allemagne: 1829–1989

Résumé Le retournement de conjoncture du début des années 1970 s'est traduit par un renouveau des travaux relatifs aux cycles longs de type Kondratieff. Face à la fluctuation atypique de certaines variables (prix, production, etc ...), les acquis théoriques antérieurs semblaient avoir épuisé leur capacité explicative. Il devenait nécessaire d'énoncer et de vérifier des hypothèses nouvelles pour expliquer les traits originaux de la crise de structure qui se dessinait. Les résultats des travaux développés au sein du groupe de recherche en Histoire Quantitative et Théories du Long Terme de l'Université de Montpellier I répondent à cette nécessité. Ils introduisent une relation entre les dépenses engagées pour le développement des hommes (salaires, éducation, santé etc ...) et celles consacrées à la croissance matérielle.

---

The downturn in the economic situation in the early 1970s gave rise to new work on long-term Kondratieff cycles. Given the atypical fluctuation in some variables (prices, production, etc.), previous theories appeared to have exhausted their ability to explain events. To explain the original features of the structural crisis that was developing, it has become necessary to put forward and test new hypotheses. The results of work carried out by the research group on Quantitative History and Long-Term Theories at the University of Montpellier I meet this requirement. They introduce a relationship between expenditure on human development (wages, education, health, etc.) and that devoted to material growth.

---

Zusammenfassung Die Verschlechterung der wirtschaftlichen Situation in den frühen 70ern gab der Arbeit an langfristigen Kontratieff — Zyklen Aufschwung. In Anbetracht der atypischen Fluktuation einiger Variablen (Preise, Produktion, usw.) schienen vorangegangene Theorien die Ereignisse nicht mehr erklären zu können. Um die Ursachen der sich entwickelnden strukturellen Krise erklären zu können wurde es notwendig, neue Hypothesen aufzustellen und auszuprobieren. Die Ergebnisse der von der Forschungsgruppe über Quantitative Geschichte und Langzeittheorien an der Universität von Montpellier I durchgeführten Studien erfüllen diese Anforderungen. Sie stellen Ausgaben für die menschliche Entwicklung (Lohn, Bildung, Gesundheit usw.) und Ausgaben für materielles Wachstum in Relation.

---

Resumen La degradación de la situación económica a comienzos de los a~nos setenta ha originado un nuevo trabajo sobre ciclos Kondratieff de largo plazo. Dada la fluctuación atípica de algunas variables (precios, producción, etc.), las teorías previas aparentemente habían agotado su capacidad de explicar los hechos. A efectos de explicar las características originales de la crisis estructural que se estaba desarrollando, surgió la necesidad de adelantar y comprobar nuevas hipótesis. Los resultados del trabajo realizado por el grupo de investigación de Historia Cuantitativa y Teorías de Largo Plazo de la Universidad de Montpellier I satisfacen estos requisitos. Ellos introducen una relación entre los gastos y esfuerzos destinados al desarrollo humano (salarios, educación, sanidad, etc.) y aquellos dedicados al crecimiento material.

---

1970- . - (, ..) , , . . I . (, , ..) .