Reasons and rationales for neuropsychological tests in a multitier system of school services

Many contemporary learning disabilities (LD) experts advocate a multitiered service delivery system. Included in this formulation is the obligation to deliver for each struggling student increasingly sophisticated and intensive services before special education is considered. For students who evidence failed response to intervention, an evaluation, suggested by some to comprise minimal cognitive and extensive achievement testing, typically ensues and helps to determine special education eligibility. We argue that neuropsychological tools are essential at this point in the process. In contrast to minimal standardized testing, use of these tools permits school psychologists to perform their most important mission – to understand, predict, and control (improve) student behavior and development by identifying learning syndromes, rather than discrete academic deficits. This article argues for neuropsychological tests as a way for school psychologists to recognize patterns of learning problems reported in the peer‐reviewed literature, which in turn promotes effective planning and intervention. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A linguistic and neuropsychological approach to remediation in a german case of developmental dysgraphia

There have been relatively few single case studies concerned with the remediation of spelling deficits among developmental impairments. Among these there have been a small number that targeted specific components of the spelling process and used linguistic theories as theoretical underpinning for the development of remediation procedures. This single case study examines remediation of writing skills and aims at evaluating two different lexically based intervention methods, one of which used Optimality Theory as its basis. We applied a rule-based remediation and an intervention method using whole-word forms to a child with selective impairments in the lexical-graphemic components. The investigation was done with words in which phoneme-grapheme-correspondences in word final position change due to voicing neutralization. The individual exhibited a method- and item-specific effect with respect to the rule-based method. In addition, a transfer effect to untreated items and a generalization effect to untrained but related tasks was observed. The absence of a method-specific and a generalization effect for the whole-word form intervention and the success of the rule-based method is determined by the specific cognitive component(s)s that constitute the source of the deficit and the appropriateness of Optimality Theory to address this particular deficit.     

Spelling improvement for college students who are dyslexic

Academic problems of the dyslexic child often persist in adult life. Such problems as spelling can interfere with the performance of such adult learners in college. Federal legislation requires reasonable accommodation for these students. At some colleges, this consists of allowing use of tape recorders in lectures and sometimes allowing extra time on examinations. Remediation of reading, writing, and spelling among dyslexic college students is often not addressed. This study reports the use of a modified Orton-Gillingham approach in comparison with a nonphonetic approach and with a group receiving no remediation. The results indicate a significant increase in spelling performance for the group receiving the modified Orton-Gillingham remediation. This contrasts with no significant change in the group receiving nonphonetic remediation and in the control group (no remediation), and indicates that adulthood is not too late for appropriate intervention for the dyslexic student. Colleges offering such intervention and the students receiving it will benefit from improved performance.     

Improving the Background Knowledge of Non-traditional Students

Three intervention methods to assist non-traditional college students in evaluating and improving their chemical and mathematical backgrounds were developed and implemented over three successive years. The goal was to improve students' self-confidence and success in the course. The first method was a one-day optional symposium featuring a variety of tutorial sessions. In the second, a pre-test helped students determine potential deficits in requisite knowledge, and topical workshops were made available outside of class time. The third method used the same assessment pre-test combined with instructional videos on selected topics drawn from the pre-test. The three approaches were compared in a formative sense with respect to 1) student identification of areas of potential weakness, 2) accessibility of each method to the non-traditional student population. The success of the third method at improving student course performance was also examined.     

Putting struggling readers on the PHAST track: a program to integrate phonological and strategy-based remedial reading instruction and maximize outcomes

PHAST (for Phonological and Strategy Training) is a research-based remedial reading program that attempts to capitalize upon current research on reading disabilities and their remediation. The focus of the program is on the primary obstacles to word identification learning and independent decoding that most disabled readers face and the steps necessary to help these children achieve independent reading skills. A framework of phonologically based remediation was used as a foundation upon which a set of flexible and effective word identification strategies were scaffolded in an integrated developmental sequence. The program uses a combination of direct instruction and dialogue-based metacognitive training, with the pedagogical emphasis shifting from an initial direct instruction, remedial focus to increasingly metacognitive-strategy-based methods. A continuum of intervention over 70 hours provides both (a) remediation of the basic phonological awareness and letter-sound-learning deficits of disabled readers and (b) specific training of five word identification strategies that offer different approaches to the decoding of unfamiliar words and exposure to different levels of subsyllabic segmentation. Explicit instruction in the application and monitoring of multiple word identification strategies and their application to text-reading activities continues throughout the PHAST Program. PHAST training provides the disabled reader with the opportunity to become a flexible reader who approaches new words in or out of context with multiple strategies and has the ability to evaluate the success of their application. The PHAST Program was developed following the controlled evaluation of its components in laboratory classroom settings and recent positive results from their sequential combination. PHAST represents a new integrated approach to programming in this area using instructional components that have already demonstrated their efficacy with children with severe reading disabilities.     

Learning disabilities and reading disorders: A current assessment

Increased interest in the child with learning problems has resulted in a number of studies of the diagnosis and remediation of learning disabilities. Such factors as visual perception, learning style and strategies, and modality deficits are examined. The efficacy of various treatment approaches is reviewed. The importance of utilizing sophisticated remediation techniques is discussed. Educators also will need to examine the excessively high failure rate found in the primary grades in many American schools and analyze the factors involved in such failure.     

Students Demonstrating Persistent Low Response to Reading Intervention: Three Case Studies

Three students with severe reading disabilities participated in a 3‐year intervention provided by trained tutors from first grade through third grade (175–231 hours). All three students demonstrated very low response to initial levels of intervention and were provided adjusted intensive intervention in an attempt to remedy their low response to instruction. Findings revealed that two of the three students realized limited growth and did not accelerate progress toward reducing the gap between their performance and the expected grade level performance. One student accelerated growth considerably during third grade and made accelerated progress toward grade level expectations. Information on intervention implementation and student progress as well as implications for practice and further research are discussed.     

Using a Conceptual Understanding and Procedural Fluency Heuristic to Target Math Interventions with Students in Early Elementary

The study examined the use of a conceptual and procedural framework for identifying math deficits and delivering appropriate interventions. Participants were two first‐grade students and one third‐grade student, who were identified as struggling with the grade‐appropriate content in math. The first‐grade students focused on addition and the third‐grade student focused on multiplication. Each student's conceptual understanding was assessed, and students who lacked conceptual understanding received an intervention that addressed underlying concepts. Students with acceptable understanding of the underlying concepts received an intervention that focused on the procedure. The study used a single‐case, multiple‐baseline design, but the contra‐indicated intervention was administered for the first 2 weeks following baseline, with the prescribed intervention for the final 2 weeks. Each student showed more growth during the prescribed intervention phase when compared to the contra‐indicated phase.     

学习障碍学生社会技能迁移及其干预

学习障碍学生的社会技能缺失主要表现在社会认知、判断力、情感识别能力、社会成熟、社会交往活动频率、人际排斥及社会技能迁移等方面,这些社会技能缺乏的表现可归为四种基本类型.学习障碍学生的社会技能干预模式主要包括直接教学形式和策略教学模式.教育者可根据社会技能缺失的类型和特点设计社会技能训练过程,并采取不同的干预方法对学习障碍学生进行干预.     

The effectiveness of an intervention program on hearing aid maintenance for teenagers and their teachers

The impact of an intervention program on hearing aid functioning and maintenance was evaluated. The program targeted 29 teenagers who wore hearing aids, and 7 of their teachers. Using an A-B-A paradigm, the researcher monitored student and clinician reports on the hearing aids' functioning over a 12-week period that began before intervention and concluded 3 weeks after intervention ended. Pretest and posttest student and teacher questionnaires tapped these two groups' knowledge and attitudes concerning hearing aids. The 6-week intervention comprised theoretical and practical instruction in hearing aid maintenance. The number of functioning hearing aids increased significantly following intervention, and continued to increase even after intervention ended. The gap between student and clinician reports on the functional status of the hearing aids was widest in the study's first stage and narrowest--indeed, negligible--in the third. The questionnaire results indicated that both students and teachers acquired new knowledge. The study findings underscore the need for intervention programs in hearing aid maintenance and their benefits to adolescent students and their teachers.     

Scottish education: Beyond devolution

ABSTRACT

Reading Recovery is a highly successful and widely used intervention for children with reading difficulties. However, it is an intensive intervention and some have argued that it is for this reason alone that it is effective. This argument is examined but found to be unsound. The central features of Reading Recovery are then described under the headings of assessment, curriculum and instruction, and the empirical evidence of their value reviewed. Using this method to analyse Reading Recovery as a case‐study of successful intervention certain key elements are revealed. The intensity of the intervention is identified as a necessary but not sufficient ingredient for effective remediation. Other factors of importance are the rigour and focus of assessment, the breadth of the curriculum which includes writing as well as reading, and the quality of instruction.     

A Guide to Just and Fair Remediation of Counseling Students with Professional Performance Deficiencies

Ethical standards for counselor training require remediation of students with professional performance deficiencies. However, standards fail to specify the type or extent of remediation necessary to safeguard students' legal rights or justify dismissal if remediation is unsuccessful. Critical assessment of remedial practices in counselor preparation has occurred primarily in the courts when the constitutionality of specific practices was challenged. Prompted by a recent court challenge and its implications for curricular and policy change (C. R. McAdams, V. A. Foster, & T. J. Ward, 2007), this article examines court‐tested methods of student remediation and presents them as a guide for developing just and fair student remediation policies.     

Establishing the Integrity of the Independent Variable in Early Intervention Programs

With the implementation of P.L. 99–457, early intervention programs are becoming more widespread; they are also being pressed to become more accountable. Persons evaluating early intervention programs have typically adopted outcome-oriented approaches focusing exclusively on measuring the dependent program variable (i.e., changes in student measures). This article highlights some of the problems inherent in these traditional approaches to program evaluation. A number of recommendations are offered for assessing the independent variable with the same methodological rigor that is typically reserved for measuring student outcomes in program evaluation studies. The implications of this shift in methodological approach are discussed in terms of improving the ability to replicate successful programs, design new ones with increased efficiency, and provide long-lasting support for early intervention.     

Effect of short‐ and long‐term play therapy services on teacher–child relationship stress

The purpose of the present study was to explore the effect of both short‐ and long term Child‐Centered Play Therapy on teacher–student relationship stress. Teachers identified 58 students exhibiting emotional and behavioral difficulties who were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups. Students in the short‐term intensive play therapy group participated in 16 sessions of play therapy over 8 weeks, and students in the long‐term play therapy group participated in 16 sessions over 16 weeks. Results indicated that both intervention groups demonstrated significant improvement in teacher–student relationship stress from pre‐ to posttest. Post hoc analyses indicated that the short‐term intensive intervention demonstrated statistical significance and larger effect sizes in overall total stress, teacher characteristics, and student characteristics. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Establishing the Integrity of the Independent Variable in Early Intervention Programs

With the implementation of P.L. 99-457, early intervention programs are becoming more widespread; they are also being pressed to become more accountable. Persons evaluating early intervention programs have typically adopted outcome-oriented approaches focusing exclusively on measuring the dependent program variable (i.e., changes in student measures). This article highlights some of the problems inherent in these traditional approaches to program evaluation. A number of recommendations are offered for assessing the independent variable with the same methodological rigor that is typically reserved for measuring student outcomes in program evaluation studies. The implications of this shift in methodological approach are discussed in terms of improving the ability to replicate successful programs, design new ones with increased efficiency, and provide long-lasting support for early intervention.     

Intensifying instruction: Does additional instructional time make a difference for the most at-risk first graders?

Research is clear on the benefit of early intervention efforts and the importance of intensive instructional supports; however, understanding which features to intensify is less clear. General intervention features of group size, instructional delivery, and time are areas schools can consider manipulating to intensify instruction. Also, each of these features can vary along a continuum making them easier or more challenging for schools to implement. What is unclear is if implementing very intensive interventions early in school (first grade), which require significantly more school resources, provides accordingly accelerated student learning. This article investigates the role of intensifying instructional time for the most at-risk first graders in schools implementing research-based instructional and assessment practices within multitiered instructional support systems. Results indicate that students receiving more intensive intervention made significantly more progress across a range of early reading measures. Intervention features, limitations, recommendations for practice, and implications for treatment resisters are discussed.     

Time on task in intensive modes of delivery

This paper reports on an investigation into how staff teaching in compressed courses can encourage student engagement and enhance student use of learning time, despite significant restraints of time as well as distance. Typically these courses (described here as units) are expected to have comparable learning outcomes to their full-semester counterparts and provide an opportunity for students to either retake failed units or to acquire credit for their chosen degrees in accelerated time. Organising teaching and learning through intensive modes of delivery may require different approaches to curriculum development and pedagogy compared to traditional unit planning and delivery, especially when the intensive delivery utilises online technologies. This paper explores strategies employed by successful intensive mode teachers in the development and delivery units for maximised student engagement. It concludes that many of these strategies are equally applicable in online and distance education regardless of the unit being intensive or otherwise.     

The effects of strategic counting instruction,with and without deliberate practice,on number combination skill among students with mathematics difficulties

The primary purpose of this study was to assess the effects of strategic counting instruction, with and without deliberate practice with those counting strategies, on number combination (NC) skill among students with mathematics difficulties (MD). Students (n = 150) were stratified on MD status (i.e., MD alone versus MD with reading difficulty) and site (proximal versus distal to the intervention developer) and then randomly assigned to control (no tutoring) or 1 of 2 variants of NC remediation. Both remediations were embedded in the same validated word-problem tutoring protocol (i.e., Pirate Math). In 1 variant, the focus on NCs was limited to a single lesson that taught strategic counting. In the other variant, 4–6 min of practice per session was added to the other variant. Tutoring occurred for 16 weeks, 3 sessions per week for 20–30 min per session. Strategic counting without deliberate practice produced superior NC fluency compared to control; however, strategic counting with deliberate practice effected superior NC fluency and transfer to procedural calculations compared with both competing conditions. Also, the efficacy of Pirate Math word-problem tutoring was replicated.     

Referral and placement recommendations of teachers toward gifted handicapped children

Three male students between 10 and 13 years of age, who possessed WISC‐R Full Scale IQ's of greater than 120 and documented problems in decoding skills were assessed with respect to cognitive processing abilities (Cognitive Assessment System) and found to have marked deficits in successive coding. A process based remedial program, combining global training on tasks requiring successive processing with tasks involving the application of successive processing to decoding in reading, was implemented within approximately six weeks (15 hours) of training. The remedial program included guided practice and verbal mediation to assist students to internalize and generalize the cognitive strategies. Improvements following remediation were manifested uniquely for each of the students. The differences appeared to be related to the entry skill levels and preferred strategies of each student, as well as to the dimensions of attention and motivation. Results offer an extension of cognitive theory regarding the functioning of students, and may also provide an assessment option allowing earlier identification and remediation for such students.