Participating in a Collaborative Action Learning Set (CAL): beginning the journey

Action learning is being increasingly utilised as a strategy to underpin practitioner focused development and research projects in healthcare generally and nursing in particular. Whilst facilitators of and participants in action learning have a variety of resource materials to guide their practice and participation, there continue to be few systematic and/or evaluative accounts of the experience of participating in action learning for potential action learning participants to draw upon. This paper attempts to address this agenda. The paper presents an interpretive evaluation of the experience of nurses participating in action learning as the learning strategy underpinning a 3-year emancipatory practice development/practitioner research programme. In particular, the paper focuses on the experience of ‘joining a learning set’. This focus has been adopted as the theory of action learning emphasises the principle of ‘voluntariness’, but yet action learning is increasingly being pre-prescribed as a component of development and research programmes. Such was the case with the programme reported on in this paper. The paper describes an approach used to evaluate learning that was adopted in this programme and in particular the initial evaluation stage that focuses on participants' feelings about joining an action learning set. The data collection and analysis processes are described and the key themes arising from the analysis (‘self-preservation’ versus ‘development of self’) discussed. It is concluded that working with principles of enlightenment is essential to successful action learning and the transformation of workplace cultures.     

An extreme case of action learning at BAT Niemeyer

Becoming a ‘winning organization’ when one currently is an ‘ugly ducking’ can be a difficult and strenuous task. BAT Niemeyer in the Netherlands succeeded in making such a transformation over the course of four years. Action learning was used, among other methods, to steer part of this transformation, in which employee involvement was heavily emphasized. In the following article, it is described how action learning was used by the company and what resulted from this. Some of the difficulties involved in the process are also set out. Some of the ‘lessons learned’ for action learning development are briefly discussed as well. Although action learning was not used in all of the firm's initiatives to realize the abovementioned transformation, we think these lessons can be drawn nevertheless.     

Action learning – an experience working with executives at the IBM corporation

The increasing emphasis on innovation in executive development has important implications for contemporary organizations talent professionals and strategy creators. Providing an experience that addresses individual and team development, strategic innovation, organizational alignment and the integration of values is the objective of the action learning programme at International Business Machines (IBM). This article identifies the frameworks and lessons learned in the action learning experiences of Integration and Values Team, the top 300 executives, at IBM.     

Opportunities and limitations for learning within teachers’ collaboration in teams: perspectives from action learning

Researchers posit that teachers' teaching and learning are improved by teachers' collective efforts to examine and reflect on practice. Yet the questions of what and how teachers learn when collaborating with colleagues remain unanswered: What kinds of knowledge and skills do teachers acquire in conjunction with their collaboration? What brings about teachers' learning when they collaborate in teams? And how does their learning affect their practice? In this paper I will examine to what extent action learning can contribute to answering these questions from a Danish perspective.

I begin the paper by presenting action learning, which formed the framework for the teacher team collaboration that provides the empirical fundament of this paper, and by discussing my roles as consultant and researcher. Thereafter, first the possibilities, then the limitations of teachers' collaboration in teams for learning are discussed. Finally, several methodological dilemmas are considered and the paper's conclusions are presented.     

Following the action in action learning: towards ethnomethodological studies of (critical) action learning

Action learning is a pedagogical practice that helps participants learn by talking about their workplace action with fellow participants (‘comrades in adversity’) in their action learning set. This paper raises questions about the action in action learning, such as: how do members of an action learning set learn from and through each other? How do they learn through their developing conversation and interaction?

To answer such questions, I argue that, ‘ethnomethodology’ (the study of ‘member's methods’ or ‘folk methods’ for doing any kind of practical action) is useful for showing the intricacy of the practical learning process in action learning, as in learning in action, more generally. The paper illustrates the conversational and interactional work of members doing things and learning together in action (for example discovering things in science and in board meetings); and argues that this approach may also be used to study action learning in practice.     

On the nature of problems in action learning

The article aims to explore the nature of problems in action learning. Beginning with Revans' distinction between problems and puzzles, it draws parallels with the notion of wicked and tame problems. It offers four means of considering problems in action learning – in terms of the locus of a set's work; from the viewpoint of an organisation using action learning; in terms of the different ways in which learning is used and as distinguishing between technical and practical knowledge. It addresses the question of whether action learning is suited for wicked problems only. The challenge to action learning provided by appreciative inquiry is examined and a range of conclusions is offered.     

The leadership crisis – can Action Learning Questions provide any answers?

This article provides a reflective account of the author's experience over the past 12 years of introducing a structured approach to accredited action learning to corporate organisations. The generic Action Learning Question method is outlined and specific examples of programmes in the financial services/banking and education sector are described. Included is an example of how Action Learning Facilitators have been developed. It is proposed that this approach has a place in supporting leadership development in a period of great uncertainty and change.     

Issues in action learning: a critical realist interpretation

The purpose of this paper is to argue that the perspective of ‘critical realism’ has considerable potential for moving forward the theory and practice of action learning. The paper addresses three questions: (1) Does action learning emphasise the individual or the collective? (2) Can action learning be thought of as critical, but should it also be the subject of criticism? (3) What gets carried forward from action learning by way of learning? Critical realism is argued to be illuminative of these issues; this involves dealing with ontological questions – what is there out there to learn about – as well as epistemological ones – how can this be learned about. It also involves seeing the world as an open system with emergent properties rather than the predictable machine of the positivist approach and the ‘nothing but a sea of meaning’ of the extreme social constructionist approach. The conclusions are that: (1) Yes, it can, and should, focus on both. Individual and organisational foci (one form of the individual-collective question) for action learning are compatible and reconcilable, though often with difficulty. (2) Yes to critical approach of and from action learning, which is its true intent. Suggestions are made on how to do this in an ultimately constructive way. (3) There are several answers to this, the ability to learn, ‘mechanisms’ that can but may not necessarily work in future situations, depending on circumstance and ‘state of play’ information.     

Resistance in action learning: struggling with self-efficacy and the social Self – and what about the set advisor?

This account of practice explores the concept of resistance in action learning. Resistance is conceptualized as an attempt of self-protection that is manifested in action learners' struggles with their sense of self-efficacy and their social Self. These struggles are an inherent part of the action learning process and may elicit defensive undercurrents that constrain learning. I contribute to debates on criticality in action learning by recognizing the centrality of resistance as a source of learning for participants and set advisors. The intended contribution of this paper is to illuminate the importance of engaging with these limiting processes which can spark a powerful learning experience that reverberates long after the action learning programme has finished. Furthermore, I reflect on the opportunities this alternative view on resistance may provide for us as action learning facilitators and discuss how we may incorporate these reflections in our practice.     

Why are we using action learning and in what contexts?

The purpose of this study was to examine the contexts in which action learning has been used and provide implications for the design of action learning programmes. We performed a content analysis of 127 articles (case studies and case reports included) published in Action Learning: Research and Practice between 2004 and 2012. In this study, we address the following research questions: (a) In what contexts has action learning been used? (b) What are the distinctive features of cases identified? (c) What are the implications for the design of action learning programmes? The results showed that the UK and European countries have most frequently used action learning, and the most dominant purposes for action learning were leadership development, organization development, and professional development. We also elaborated on design considerations and implications for action learning research and practice.     

Action learning – a process which supports organisational change initiatives

This paper reflects on how action learning sets (ALSs) were used to support organisational change initiatives. It sets the scene with contextualising the inclusion of change projects in a masters programme. Action learning is understood to be a dynamic process where a team meets regularly to help individual members address issues through a highly structured, facilitated team process of reflection and action. The key findings from the evaluation of the students and facilitators’ experiences are reflected on, together with plans for improving the experience for all stakeholders for the next academic year. In sharing this experience, the purpose of the paper is to highlight the most significant learning from the evaluation. Good preparation for action learning is vital to ensure a positive experience for all involved. From the student perspective, an appropriate learning set mix is needed to ensure a balance of support and challenge for the ALS. In addition to a preparatory workshop for action learning facilitators, regular meetings with the action learning facilitators in the form of ALSs could be scheduled as a support especially for those new to the process. Finally, it is hoped that this account will encourage readers to use action learning for supporting and engaging students in organisational change initiatives.     

Action learning: the possibility of differing hierarchies in learning sets

This paper presents the proposition that a variety of differing hierarchies exist in an action learning set at any one time, and each hierarchy has the potential to affect an individual's behaviour within the set. An interpretivist philosophy underpins the research framework adopted in this paper. Data were captured by means of 11 in-depth interviews that formed part of wider research into set members' perceptions of what makes an effective action learning set. The interviewees were all former students of the researcher and her colleagues. The research draws upon grounded theory as a dominant research paradigm and uses thematic analysis to interpret the research findings. The findings of the research serve to simply illustrate that there is the potential for a variety of differing hierarchies to exist in an action learning set at any one time. Some of the hierarchies may exist for the full duration of the set; others are somewhat ephemeral. The findings from this research also present themselves as points of consideration for academics and practioners who have used or are about to use action learning as a learning vehicle.     

Incorporating a transformational learning perspective in action learning sets

A field study focused on learning capabilities within action learning sets was used to evaluate potential opportunities between action learning and transformational learning. The use of action learning as a methodology for the acquisition, sharing and transfer of information while integrating an added perspective for transformational learning within the action learning set was investigated. There could be occurrences of transformation within action learning and critical action learning sets. However, there could be the added possibility of using action learning as a potential vehicle for an enhanced or more specific focus on transformational learning. It is useful to explore this potential, especially when there is an increased awareness regarding associations between action learning and transformational learning. Within such learning environments, there could also be the increased potential for outcomes that transform an individual, group or organization. The use of transformational elements based on discussions and resulting themes that occur within action learning sessions are discussed with the aim of encouraging personal development, enhancing skills and engaging in adult learning that could lead to organizational development. Recommendations for these environments are also presented.     

‘Knowing is not enough; we must apply’: reflections on a failed action learning application

This paper reflects upon a sub-optimal action learning application with a strategic business re-design project. The objective of the project was to improve the long-term business performance of a subsidiary business and build the strategic plan. Action learning was introduced to aid the group in expanding their view of the real problems confronting the business and simultaneously implement a learning method to improve the organization's leadership team's critical thinking as a whole. Ultimately, the goal was the creation of organizational learning as the project progressed through an integrative, systems problem-solving approach. The author uncovered that corporate culture was an insurmountable hurdle in reaching the optimal application of action learning. The purpose of this paper is to reflect upon the application of action learning and outline probable reasons for the failure in reaching the ultimate application of action learning.     

Implementing blended self-managed action learning for digital entrepreneurs in higher education

We report upon implementing blended self-managed action learning (SMAL) within graduate and postgraduate courses in digital entrepreneurship. In four out of five cases, we found that SMAL was highly motivating to our learners and integrated well with a blended and flexible approach to learning. We report a case where a SMAL set broke down due to the presence of a charismatic learner who was visibly biased against SMAL and questioned its utility from the outset. We suggest that the risk of similar breakdowns might be managed by developing a questionnaire to pre-assess participants' readiness for action learning and increasing the level or support during SMAL set meetings. While SMAL did not give rise to independent action learning sets after the courses, we were surprised and encouraged to find that learners instigated independent virtual learning networks, which flourished for up to a year after the courses. On the basis of this experiment we suggest that blended and fully virtual SMAL are worthy of further investigation in higher education and beyond.     

Enhancing postgraduate learning and development: a participatory action learning and action research approach through conferences

As supervisors who advocate the transformational potential of research both to generate theory and practical and emancipatory outcomes, we practice participatory action learning and action research (PALAR). This paper offers an illustrative case of how supervision practices based on action learning can foster emancipatory and lifelong learning within a university context that is becoming ever more focused on throughput of students, rather than on the quality of their learning. Conference attendance offers an excellent opportunity for postgraduate students to develop as researchers and lifelong learners, yet anxiety often prevents them from making the most of the learning experience. We explain how we encouraged the development of capabilities in students through a PALAR support programme that assisted postgraduate students prepare for a conference to make overall participation, presenting a paper and subsequent publication a true learning experience. We generated and analysed data from the written reflections of 11 postgraduate students who participated in the programme. The findings suggest that action learning, specifically PALAR, can be used to enable a rich learning experience for postgraduate students attending conferences through fostering relationships, building trust, a supportive environment, collaboration, communication and competence among them. Postgraduate students who experienced our PALAR support programme developed not only skills, knowledge, confidence and deeper appreciation of learning opportunities through conferences, but also understanding of the principles of PALAR that apply not just to the conference context but across all aspects of learning and research and life at large.     

Reflections of a ‘late-career’ early-career researcher: an account of practice

This account of practice describes the journey of an ‘accidental academic’ through the Doctoral programme in Business Administration (DBA). It reflects on her experience of action learning and lessons learned to better embed action learning in future DBA teaching and assessment. The account is told from the perspective of a mature student straddling business and academic interests. DBA students represent a mature cohort with significant business experience and responsibility. As such, they have an implicit understanding of action learning. Action learning for these individuals should be re-activated rather than re-learned for their doctoral studies. Suggestions are made for improving the utility of action learning for DBA students and their willing engagement in the action learning process.     

Cooperative learning and team culture in schools: Conditions for teachers’ professional development

The study done in Slovenia examined grammar and elementary teachers’ perceptions of cooperative learning. The sample consisted of 542 Slovene elementary and grammar school teachers, who teach Slovene. The main question of the research was how teachers assess the value of group learning in comparison to individual forms of learning. From their perceptions, we can draw conclusions about their development, the introduction of group work within lessons and about the encouragement of pupils towards collaborative learning. The main finding of the research is that elementary school teachers place greater importance on group learning than grammar school teachers. In addition, when teachers are grouped according to their years of experience (seniority), there are differences in their assessment of group learning. However, it is not possible to get a linear pattern from the results (e.g. showing that years of experience do or do not contribute to the perception of the importance of group learning), a finding which supports the critical opinion that teachers’ experience depends not only on the quantity (years of experience), but also on the quality of experience.