美国的语言教育政策：学校内外的争辩

语言教育政策是美国多元社会结构中重要的教育政策。美国双语教育法在实施 30年后 ,目前遭受严峻的挑战。《双语教育法》开始由《不让一个孩子掉队》、《语言获得法》替代。维护和反对双语教育政策的立法、研究和运动呈针锋相对的态势。语言教育政策在教育层面 ,人们关注它的是效率和机会均等的效果问题 ;在社会架构更深的层面 ,潜伏着国家的稳定性、语言文化权利的维护、美国社会的多元性和开放性等复杂的政治意涵。     

美国少数民族双语教育政策及其特点

长期以来,由于受语言的限制,许多少数族裔学生在学业成绩上远远落后于母语为英语的学生。为了帮助英语水平有限的少数民族学生获得平等的教育机会,1968年,美国联邦政府颁布了首个《双语教育法》。虽然到20世纪初该法案最终取消,但相关政策为推动美国少数民族双语教育发展发挥了重要作用。从政策变迁过程来看,政治力量介入使得美国双语教育政策的变迁过程充满了曲折和反复;从政策价值取向来看,由于政策决策者对少数民族语言的态度转变,导致美国双语政策价值取向由"语言是权利"和"语言是资源"走向"语言是问题";从政策执行过程来看,联邦政府非常重视推进学区的自身能力建设。     

美国德克萨斯双语教育政策对延边地区双语教育的启示

美国双语教育在双语教育政策方面有很多值得借鉴的经验。文章从简单介绍美国近代双语教育政策历史沿革开始,针对延边双语教育发展现状存在的问题,从双语政策法规、评价机制和教师培训等方面具体分析了同样处于双语环境下的德克萨斯州的语言教育政策,通过比较认识到我国双语教育政策优越性同时也发现德克萨斯双语教育政策从制定明确而细致的语言政策、建立合理的学生考核和对学校的评价制度、重视双语教师培训等方面对延边双语教育有启示作用。     

美国双语教育的社会政治背景

国内有关双语教育的文献中,许多都论及国外双语教育的情况,包括美国的双语教育(如冯新增、海淑英1998;胡壮麟2004;等),对美国双语教育的讨论,主要侧重于其历史沿革、教学模式等。近年也有—些文献(如冯小钉2004;吴剑丽2004;郑新容2005;等)论及到了美国双语教育的政治性。本文试图介绍和探讨美国双语教育政策形成的社会政治背景,着重分析在美国错综复杂的种族政治中,美国的政治人物、政府机构和司法体系催生美国双语教育政策的过程,尤其强调美国双语教育这一教育问题的政治性,希望有助于加深我们对美国双语教育的认识。     

美国双语教育的社会政治背景

国内有关双语教育的文献中,许多都论及国外双语教育的情况,包括美国的双语教育(如冯新增、海淑英1998;胡壮麟2004;等),对美国双语教育的讨论,主要侧重于其历史沿革、教学模式等.近年也有一些文献(如冯小钉2004;吴剑丽2004;郑新容2005;等)论及到了美国双语教育的政治性.本文试图介绍和探讨美国双语教育政策形成的社会政治背景,着重分析在美国错综复杂的种族政治中,美国的政治人物、政府机构和司法体系催生美国双语教育政策的过程,尤其强调美国双语教育这一教育问题的政治性,希望有助于加深我们对美国双语教育的认识.     

美国双语问题的两派之争

文献显示,美国双语问题的高度政治性在我们的双语问题研究中远未得到充分的认识。本文着重对美国在推行双语教育过程中的相关社会政治问题,尤其是围绕双语问题形成的派别纷争的情况及其政治实质进行探讨和分析,以期加深我们对这一特定的“语言问题”和美国社会文化的认识。     

美国双语教育的历史演进

美国双语教育大致经历了自由、限制、发展和否定四个阶段,每个阶段采取了不同的双语教育政策,民众对双语教育也持不同态度。因此,在对美国双语教育历史进行梳理的同时,为了厘清其发展轨迹并吸取其经验教训,我们需要探讨其发展过程中的政治、经济、文化和语言观等影响因素。     

语言政策影响下美国双语教育的发展历程和未来展望

根据执行语言政策的不同时期,美国双语教育的发展阶段可分为萌芽阶段、受限阶段、融合和发展阶段、否定和创生阶段四个阶段.虽然目前美国双语教育在发展中遇到了一些障碍,但是未来美国双语教育会在多元文化主义思潮、新的政治和经济发展因素的影响下继续向前迈进.     

20世纪以来美国语言政策及其对中国语言教育的启示

语言教育政策是一个国家语言政策的重要组成部分,也是教育政策的基础。针对当前我国语言教育因忽视母语教育、盲目实施双语教育及外语教育缺乏长远规划等急需改革的问题,通过概述美国20世纪以来的语言政策,分析其政策制定的动机,以期对中国语言教育政策的调整带来有益的启示,以满足我国进一步发展的需要。     

美国语言政策及其对我国民族地区双语教育的启示

语言政策是国家政策的重要组成部分。美国在联邦政府层面没有强制性的语言政策,但州政府在移民语言和民族语言的传递历程中极力维护英语的强势地位,对其他语言采取了排斥的态度。作为美国学校语言教育重要内容的外语课程和双语课程发展不是很顺利,正面临严峻挑战,但家庭语言教育则呈现出灵活多变的特征。美国语言教育政策对我国民族地区双语教育的启示包括:营造语言学习环境、保护和开发民族语言资源、鼓励社会力量参与民族语言教育。     

美国双语教育政策嬗变及其实践

在多元文化教育改革和民权运动中,少数民族对教育平等权利的要求及其民族文化意识的觉醒,推动了美国双语教育的发展.在双语教育制度建立、执行、废止的过程中,政治博弈对其发生着深刻的影响.美国双语教育的失败,体现了政治诉求与教育发展规律之间的矛盾.本文考察美国双语教育发展的历史及现状,分析双语教育政策从制定到实施过程中出现的特点.     

Los retos de la educación bilingüe en inglés y español en las escuelas públicas de Nueva York: objetivos, modelos y currículos

The challenges of bilingual education in English and Spanish in public schools of New York: Objectives, models and curricula – The first section of this article describes the conceptual differences between educational objectives, educational model (context and structures) and curriculum (units of study or sequential study guides). The second section analyses how these three concepts were put into practice in five bilingual elementary schools serving immigrant students in New York City. The educational objectives reflect the leadership and work expectations which the principal establishes within the school and with the community. The educational model is translated into a clear language allocation policy that is reached by consensus between the principal and the teachers. The curriculum adaptations reflect the context and culture of the students, but without neglecting the educational objectives. The development of academic language (the language based on academic texts) is an element that attracts vast interest in American schools, but is ignored in many bilingual ones. The development of academic language occupies a central role in the curriculum of these five schools. This is, to a great extent, the result of the limited exposure to literacy that many students have had outside of the school environment. The final section of this article describes how these schools disregard the antagonism towards immigrants and bilingual education that is currently characteristic of the United States and focus on the quality of their programmes.     

Educational Policy for the Transnational Dominican Community

The increasingly transnational character of many immigrant communities necessitates changes in educational policy. We use the Dominican neighborhoods in New York City as our local case, examining the economic, political, social, cultural, and linguistic evidence of the transnationalism of this community. Many Dominicans maintain close ties to their native country through global networks that facilitate language and cultural maintenance. In spite of discrimination, Dominicans in the United States need to maintain their Spanish and want their children to develop fluent Spanish. Neglecting the language needs of transnational children leads to serious academic and social problems. Enriched bilingual bicultural programs would promote parallel development in both languages, providing cultural as well as linguistic instruction so that students can succeed in either country.     

美英德法四国的双语教育

少数民族教育直接关系到我国少数民族地区的经济发展和社会进步。在少数民族聚居地区实施双语教学是发展民族教育的重要途径。但是,在少数民族双语教育方面仍然面临着许多问题。文章将系统地介绍关国、英国、德国、法国的双语教育的历史背景、语言政策和具体实施情况,以期对我们更好地开展双语教学有所启发。     

The intersection of cognitive and sociocultural factors in the development of reading comprehension among immigrant students

The present paper synthesizes the international research literature on the educational achievement of immigrant and minority language students by articulating three propositions for which there is strong empirical evidence: (a) print access and literacy engagement play a key role in promoting reading comprehension; (b) the development of bilingual students?? L1 proficiency plays a positive role in L2 academic development; and (c) societal power relations play a direct causal role in promoting school failure among students from subordinated communities. This interpretation of the empirical evidence is contrasted with the conclusions of recent North American and European reviews. For example, the comprehensive review of literacy development among minority students conducted in the United States by the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth acknowledged the legitimacy of bilingual education as a policy option but said very little about the role of literacy engagement in promoting reading comprehension. By contrast, various reports of the Programme for International Student Achievement (PISA) conducted by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) highlighted the importance of reading engagement for reading achievement but discounted bilingual education as a feasible or realistic policy option. The instructional implications of the present review include the need for educators to promote print access and literacy engagement, teach for cross-lingual transfer, and affirm students?? identities in classroom interactions.     

Story Nights: an apprenticeship into literacy through bilingual story reading

This article documents an extended Mexican family’s social practices surrounding literacy as they engage with bilingual children’s literature in a unique context that draws from both home and school without the pressures of curriculum mandates. The research is situated within the southeastern United States where English-dominant practices permeate the school and community. Sociocultural and third space theories provide a framework for understanding the complexities surrounding language use and literacy development. Findings indicate the new space, Story Nights, provides for the development of connections to Mexican culture and a notion of community-based literacy learning. The author makes recommendations for classroom teachers, teacher education programs, and educational policy to be more inclusive of Latino/Latina English learners.     

从不同的语言观看美国双语教育之争

自从1968年美国颁布第一部<双语教育法案>确立了双语教育的合法地位以来,美国的双语教育在短短30多年时间里几经沉浮,可谓命运多舛.本文就美国社会对语言多样性问题所持有的三种不同语言观及其在美国双语教育的发展历程中所发挥的作用进行分析,以期进一步深刻理解美国双语教育兴衰变迁的政治性基础.     

Assessments to evaluate bilinguals: The overdue discussion of the deaf and hard of hearing student population in the United States

Assessment is a major part of the United States schooling system. Legal requirements make assessment a large part of practitioner responsibilities. The significance of assessment is, even more, the case for special populations such as bilingual hearing and Deaf and Hard of Hearing students, groups that are often the target of concern for English language development delays, differences, and/or disorders. In this article, we discuss the issues around assessing the language of Deaf and Hard of Hearing bilingual students in the United States. We highlight parallels between Deaf Education and hearing bilingual education in regard to language assessment, as well as discuss important distinctions such as the placement of Deaf Education within Special Education and working with two or more language modalities (e.g., signed, spoken, and written). In addition, alternative language assessment practices are discussed. We close this article by proposing ways for practitioners to satisfy legal and field mandates to assess Deaf and Hard of Hearing students while also applying best practices for assessing language skills in bilingual populations.     

试论美国双语教育的几个误区

失国在双语教育和第二语言教学的理论和实践方面都取得了一定的成绩，但在美国也普遍存在着一些对双语教育事业理解上的误区，如“英语在美国的地位正在降低；新到美国的人比起从前的移民学习英语侵得出奇；学习一种语言最好的方法是全部浸没；儿童在双语课堂上学习英语的时间过长，而他们的英语又没有学好；较之英语教育，双语教育的代价过于昂贵；研究并不能解决双语教育的价值”等。对这些误区的深入分析，可以给我国双语教育研究和实践提供一些有益的参考。     

Globalisation, Language and Education: A Comparative Study of the United States and Tanzania

Educational language choice has been one of the most provocative issues of the 20th century and continues to be a dominant issue at the turn of the new millennium. Efforts to naturalize English as the only suitable language for post primary school education persist in many African countries, including Tanzania. In the United States the campaign for "English only" in the schools is gaining momentum, despite the increasing multilingual population in the schools. Focusing on Tanzania and the United States, this article examines the fallacy of a monolingual, English only, policy in education. It examines the ethos surrounding the debate about the language of instruction, and considers some of the detrimental effects upon students of attempting to impose a monolingual policy. Finally, the paper suggests possible roles of educators and researchers in fostering international understanding of educational language issues as one aspect of the quest for global peace and social justice in the 21st century.