An examination of the mediating role of learning space design on the relation between instructor effectiveness and student engagement

Learning Environments Research - Ball State University re-designed five classrooms—as part of an Interactive Learning Space (ILS) Initiative—to provide educators with learning spaces...     

A tool for analyzing implementation fidelity of an integrated learning system

One way to better understand the difficult instructional issues associated with the integration of computer technology in classrooms is to analyze the implementation of computer technology. This study developed and validated a measure for examining the quality of implementation of an Integrated Learning System (ILS). The measure was used to analyze ILS implementation and determine if there were differences in the operational patterns of teachers implementing an ILS and identify implementation practices of teachers that indicated implementation fidelity. The measure indicated which teachers were high fidelity implementers and which implementation practices distinguished high fidelity implementers.     

The effects on student achievement and attitudes when using integrated learning systems with cooperative pairs

The purpose of this study was to determine whether combining cooperative learning strategies with instruction delivered using an Integrated Learning System (ILS) produced academic and attitudinal gains in students. Sixty-five fifth-grade students were randomly divided into two groups, cooperative and individual. Students in the cooperative group worked on ILS math activities with a partner. Students in the individual group worked on the same activities by themselves. Achievement and attitudinal data were collected for the students prior to the experimental treatment and at the end of the treatment period. Results revealed that students using an ILS for mathematics instruction performed better on standardized tests and were more positive toward math and the computer math activities when they worked in cooperative groups than when they worked on the same activities individually.     

“The Machine Stops”: One School’s Rejection of Integrated Learning Systems

This case study of an Integrated Learning System in a UK school was designed to examine staff and pupil attitudes towards the software and to understand why the school chose to cease using the ILS after two years of implementation. Staff who used the software in their teaching were interviewed and their pupils’ attitudes were measured using questionnaires. We analyse and discuss the results of the staff interviews alongside the pupil questionnaires in order to shed some light on the reasons underlying the cessation of the ILS. The study concludes that a combination of technical problems with the ILS software and the lack of a clear focus in managerial decisions concerning the purchase, implementation and administration of the system in this school hindered the successful implementation of the ILS.“The Machine Stops” by E. M. Forster was first published in the Oxford and Cambridge Review in 1909.     

Thinking styles: teaching and learning styles in graduate education students

This study investigated the relationship between two intellectual styles approaches: Sternberg’s thinking styles of teachers and Felder and Silverman’s learning styles. Ninety‐five graduate students majoring in special education, reading, educational leadership and curriculum, and elementary education completed the Thinking Styles in Teaching Inventory (TSTI) and the Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire (ILS). Several thinking styles from Sternberg’s theory of self‐government were highly to moderately correlated with Felder’s learning styles. The TSTI did not differentiate between master’s and doctoral students, but the ILS did so. Participants differed in their thinking styles in teaching and in their learning styles, based on their educational major.     

Felder and Silverman's Index of Learning Styles and Honey and Mumford's Learning Styles Questionnaire: How do they compare and do they predict academic performance?

Samples of engineering and business students at undergraduate, postgraduate and post-experience levels at two UK universities completed the Index of Learning Styles (ILS) (N = 284) or the (Learning Styles Questionnaire LSQ) (N = 182) and a biographical data questionnaire. Broad psychological aspects of the two learning style instruments are examined and compared. Psychometric properties of the instruments, including factor structure, internal reliability and inter-scale correlation are analysed. Potential limitations are commented on, in particular those related to the construct validity and relatively low internal reliability of the ILS scales (alpha = 0.41 to 0.65). These compare with alphas of 0.59 to 0.74 for the LSQ. Relationships between the scales are discussed and a circumplex arrangement of the LSQ is proposed. Proposals for augmenting the circumplex are made. Academic performance results and scores on each of the two instruments are compared. The general lack of significant correlations between learning style scores and performance in these samples is discussed. Conclusions are drawn about the disappointing psychometric robustness of the measures, the activity-centred nature of learning styles and the advantages of viewing styles as a circumplex.     

The literacy curriculum and use of an Integrated Learning System

This article describes one aspect of a year‐long study of primary level teachers’ and children’s (Grades 1‐3; children aged 6‐9 years) use of the language arts component of SuccessMaker, an Integrated Learning System (ILS). Using information gathered from teacher surveys and classroom observation, we documented areas where the curricula embedded in the ILS were congruent with teachers’ normal curricula and pedagogical practices. However, we also found numerous instances of incongruity. To illustrate our findings we use the case of phonics instruction to reveal discrepancies between normal practice and computer‐based learning. The differences in content, presentation sequence and instructional practices raise issues about the appropriate relationship between computer‐based instruction and teachers’ normal practices.     

Relationships between students’ conceptions of constructivist learning and their regulation and processing strategies

The present study investigated relationships between students’ conceptions of constructivist learning on the one hand, and their regulation and processing strategies on the other hand. Students in a constructivist, problem-based learning curriculum were questioned about their conceptions of knowledge construction and self-regulated learning, as well as their beliefs regarding their own (in)ability to learn and motivation to learn. Two hypothesized models were tested within 98 psychology students, using a structural equation modelling approach: The first model implemented regulation and processing variables of the Inventory of Learning Styles [ILS, Vermunt (Learning styles and regulation of learning in higher education – towards process-oriented instruction in autonomous thinking, 1992)], the second model of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire [MSLQ, Pintrich and de Groot (Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33–40, 1990)]. Results showed that structural relations exist between conceptions of constructivist learning and regulation and processing strategies. Furthermore, students who express doubt with regard to their own learning capacities are at risk for adopting an inadequate regulation strategy. A three-tiered structure of conceptual, controlling, and operational level appeared valid for the MSLQ variables, but not entirely for those of the ILS.     

Embedding cooperative learning into the design of integrated learning systems: Rationale and guidelines

An Integrated Learning System (ILS) is an advanced computer-based instructional system, generally consisting of a set of computerized courseware covering several grade levels and content areas, and complex classroom management and reporting features. Although ILSs have become increasingly popular in schools over the past five to ten years, they introduce several potential factors that could have negative effects on students' academic and social growth. These factors include: (a) de-emphasis of affective outcomes and increased student isolation, (b) lack of teacher involvement in curriculum planning and delivery, and (c) disparate effects on student achievement based on students' academic level. One possible strategy for addressing these concerns is integrating cooperative learning with ILS instruction. This paper will examine the research dealing with integrating cooperative learning strategies and computer-based instruction and provide guidelines and strategies for designing ILS instruction that enhances opportunities for cooperative learning.Thomas A. Brush is Assistant Professor of Educational Technology at Arizona State University where he can be reached at Educational Media and Computers, Arizona State U., Box 870111, Tempe, AZ 85287-0111     

Dissonance in students’ regulation of learning processes

In this article, dissonance in students’ way of learning is explored from a regulation of learning perspective. First, consonant patterns of interrelations among learning elements are sketched. These patterns were identified in studies with university students by means of a diagnostic instrument, the Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS), that assesses four learning components: cognitive processing strategies, metacognitive regulation strategies, mental models of learning, and learning orientations. Consonant patterns of linkages among these components result in four qualitatively different ways of learning or learning styles: undirected, reproduction-directed, meaning-directed and application-directed learning. Next, several studies that used the ILS as a research instrument were examined for indications of dissonant patterns of interrelations among these learning components. The students in these studies ranged from early secondary school to adult university students. Five phenomena of dissonance could be identified: lack of differentiation within learning components, lack of integration between learning components, incompatibility of learning strategies, models and orientations, missing learning style elements, and a lack of distinct application-directed learning. These phenomena are described and documented. Finally, the results are discussed in relation to other recent studies on dissonant study orchestrations and in terms of their practical meaning. A developmental explanation for the occurrence of some manifestations of dissonance is offered.     

The impact of integrated learning system implementation on student outcomes: Implications for research and evaluation

Recently, studies have been initiated to evaluate computer-based integrated learning systems (ILSs). Among those characterized by good scientific design, few have found the ILS to have positive effects on student achievement or attitudes. These findings might lead one to believe that the ILS has little impact on valued student outcomes. However, in a large national study partially reported in this chapter, it was shown that there may be another explanation for such findings, namely that in most schools ILSs are not being implemented effectively. Analyses of effects of level of implementation on outcome measures revealed that with weak implementation there is little if any positive effect of the ILS and sometimes even a negative effect, whereas with strong implementation, the ILS had a positive effect on student outcomes. The authors argue that evaluation of an ILS before its implementation fully meets the vendor's implementation standards is premature at best and may seriously underestimate the potential effectiveness of the ILS. The authors suggest why school implementation of ILSs may not be optimal, and outline implications of these findings for future ILS research and evaluation.     

Integrated learning systems: where does the management take place?

For the last four years of the UK national investigation into the effectiveness of integrated learning systems (ILSs) we have been monitoring the educational contexts within which ILSs are used. Management issues related to ILS use are a significant factor in that educational context. In this paper some of the key management issues related to the effective use of ILSs are outlined. These will include: styles and levels of management of the learning by the ILS; management of the ILS as a learning tool (models of ILS usage); partnership or subservience (‘who’ manages ‘who’ and does it matter?). For some schools, however, the introduction of an ILS has had more profound impacts than this, in that we have recorded changes in teachers' pedagogy. Where such profound changes have been reported then those factors and processes now clearly modelled in school effectiveness and improvement debates have been shown to be operating     

A comparative study of learning patterns of secondary school,high school and college students

The main aim of the current research was to identify the similarities and differences in learning patterns used by secondary school, high school and college students. There were 8,072 participants and they responded to the Chinese version of Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS) online. Findings show that the three groups of students were significantly different in their adoption of learning patterns; the dimensionalities of learning patterns observed in secondary school and high school students were similar, but were different from those of college students; these students’ learning patterns differed from each other in relation to personal characteristics (i.e. gender and age), but tended to have similar strong relationships with parents’ education level and parents’ jobs. This study contributes to the understanding of the learning patterns characterized by school and college students. By acknowledging this, educators can help to develop better support for students in adapting to new study environments.     

A comparative study of the impact of integrated learning systems on students' time-on-task

Time-on-task has long been thought to be an important predictor of student learning and achievement. Thus, it is important to understand the extent to which computer-based instruction (CBI), in general, and more specifically, computerized integrated learning systems (ILSs) affect students' time-on-task behavior. This study reports data from a year-long, 14-school national study in which rigorous time-on-task measures were used to compare students' engaged time in three primary situations: (1) an ILS used in a computer laboratory configuration; (2) an ILS used in a distributed configuration (work stations distributed throughout a school's classrooms); and (3) regular classroom instruction in which no ILS was used. The results indicate that students using the ILS spend more time actively engaged in the learning tasks than students in the non-ILS classroom. This appears to be a very robust finding, occurring regardless of whether or not there is an adult present. It appears that the ILS provides a highly motivating learning environment that engages and maintains student attention. The level of on-task behavior is significantly higher than that found in more typical classroom settings. Further, the ILS showed a significant advantage in increasing time-on-task with at-risk students. Implications of this study for further research are also discussed.     

What you design is not what you get (WYDINWYG): Cognitive,affective, and social impacts of learning with ils — An integration of findings from six-years of qualitative and quantitative studies

Despite the wide application of ILSs in schools today, little research is available to inform us of their actual effects on teaching and learning and to guide us how to design an optimal ILS environment. This chapter integrates results of six years of qualitative/naturalistic and quantitative studies of arithmetic practice in four ILSs (two in the U.S. and two in Israel), in order to provide us with this important information. These studies examined a variety of cognitive, behavioral, sociological, affective, and instructional issues identified in the ILS work of students and their teachers, and the effects of a variety of ILS design issues related to hardware, software, and method of operation on students' and teachers' behavior in the ILS environment.     

Mindless or mindful use of integrated learning systems

This chapter presents the results of a study of computer-based integrated learning systems at two elementary schools using different vendors' ILS software. The research design incorporated same-classroom pretest-matched controls in which one-half of each class used the ILS for mathematics while the other half used it for reading. Overall effects at both schools were not strongly different from zero. However, a curvilinear pattern of effects occurred at one school in math and at the other in reading. In these situations, students at the top and the bottom of their school's prior achievement distribution did better when using ILSs, and students in the middle did better with only traditional instruction provided to them. The results are interpreted as challenging the practicality of individualized instructional approaches. Such approaches require teachers to be attentive to many different learning activities simultaneously. To accomplish a greater integration of ILS and teacher-directed activity, ILS use should incorporate several features: some teacher-directed lessons followed by whole-class (not individualized) computer use, teacher-led remediation of small groups based on system-supplied information making the formation of such groups easily done, and the establishment of heterogeneous student teams that provide motivation for accomplishment and for peer assistance.     

What type of learner are your students? Preferred learning styles of undergraduate gross anatomy students according to the index of learning styles questionnaire

Students learn and process information in many different ways. Learning styles are useful as they allow instructors to learn more about students, as well as aid in the development and application of useful teaching approaches and techniques. At the undergraduate level there is a noticeable lack of research on learning style preferences of students enrolled in gross anatomy courses. The Index of Learning Styles (ILS) questionnaire was administered to students enrolled in a large enrollment undergraduate gross anatomy course with laboratory to determine their preferred learning styles. The predominant preferred learning styles of the students (n = 505) enrolled in the gross anatomy course were active (54.9%), sensing (85.1%), visual (81.2%), and sequential (74.4%). Preferred learning styles profiles of particular majors enrolled in the course were also constructed; analyses showed minor variation in the active/reflective dimension. An understanding of students' preferred learning styles can guide course design but it should not be implemented in isolation. It can be strengthened (or weakened) by concurrent use of other tools (e.g., flipped classroom course design). Based on the preferred learning styles of the majority of undergraduate students in this particular gross anatomy course, course activities can be hands on (i.e., active), grounded in concrete information (i.e., sensing), utilize visual representation such as images, figures, models, etc. (i.e., visual), and move in small incremental steps that build on each topic (i.e., sequential). Anat Sci Educ 11: 358–365. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.     

Relationships between Hong Kong students’ perceptions of the learning environment and their learning patterns in post-secondary education

The present study aims to analyse the complex relationships between the relevant constructs of students’ demographic background, perceptions, learning patterns and (proxy measures of) learning outcomes in order to delineate the possible direct, indirect, or spurious effects among them. The analytical methodology is substantively framed against the studies of Richardson (British Journal of Educational Psychology 76:867–893, 2006, Higher Education 54:385–416, 2007) that utilised a regression-based methodology to infer the possible causal relationships among the relevant learning constructs. A composite research instrument, written in Chinese and derived from the Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS) and the Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), was used to collect students’ feedback on their perceptions of the learning environment and their learning patterns. Valid responses were obtained from 1,572 students studying at six institutions in the post-secondary education sector in Hong Kong, a new response-context for both the CEQ and the ILS. In adapting the research instruments to a new Chinese response-context, the findings are generally consistent with those reported in other published works (e.g. no relationship between students’ demographic background and their satisfaction with the programme, and a significant relationship between students’ exhibition of undirected learning patterns and low expected performance), but there are also some noteworthy discrepancies. The findings therefore buttress the confidence with which an ILS-based General Theoretical Model of student learning, adapted from Richardson (British Journal of Educational Psychology 76:867–893, 2006, Higher Education 54:385–416, 2007), may be used to conceptualise and interpret the dynamics of variation across different cultural response-contexts. While the CEQ provides some valuable complementary insights, it is an instrument that requires further development in the response-context of the present study.