Signals foster multimedia learning by supporting integration of highlighted text and diagram elements

Two experiments investigated how signals foster learning from text and diagrams by examining the relationship between visual attention and learning outcomes. In Experiment 1 (N = 55) students learned about the circulatory heart system from a multimedia lesson either with or without signals highlighting text–diagram correspondences. Results showed that students learning with signals attended to signaled (but not to non-signaled) information more frequently and earlier during learning; these changes in visual attention could explain better performance in answering text–diagram-integration questions. Experiment 2 (N = 78) replicated these findings with respect to early attention on signaled diagram elements and learning outcomes; in addition, a third condition was investigated, where signals highlighted diagram elements that did not match the text. Results showed that mismatched signals guided attention only initially, whereas later on students attended more to information that corresponded to the text. Mismatched signals had no effect on learning outcomes. Taken together, the results suggest that signals aid learning by highlighting specific text–diagram correspondences and not by amplifying diagram processing more generally.     

How a picture facilitates the process of learning from text: Evidence for scaffolding

Three experiments were conducted to study on a more fine-grained level how processing a picture facilitates learning from text. In Experiment 1 (N = 85), results from a drawing task revealed that the global spatial structure of a pulley system picture was extracted even from its brief inspection (for 600 ms, 2 s). In Experiment 2 (N = 105), students who initially inspected the pulley system picture (for 600 ms, 2 s, or self-paced) had better comprehension of the system's functions and made more eye movements in line with the system's global spatial structure when listening to text than students who listened to text only. In Experiment 3 (N = 39), students who first saw the picture (for 2 s) processed written text of the pulley system's spatial structure more efficiently than students who read text only. Results suggest that global spatial information extracted from the picture was used as a mental scaffold to facilitate mental model construction.     

The direct and indirect effect of motivation for learning on students' approaches to learning through the perceptions of workload and task complexity

The present study investigates the direct and indirect influence of motivation for learning, as understood by the self‐determination theory, on students' approaches to learning. Concerning the direct influence of motivation, results show that autonomous motivation is positively related to a deep approach to learning and negatively to a surface approach. Motivation also has an indirect effect on students' approaches to learning through the perceptions of workload and task complexity, in particular through the perception of a lack of information. The greater the extent to which students are autonomously motivated, the less they perceive that they have a lack of information and the less they are inclined to adopt a surface approach to learning.     

Selecting learning tasks: Effects of adaptation and shared control on learning efficiency and task involvement

Complex skill acquisition by performing authentic learning tasks is constrained by limited working memory capacity [Baddeley, A. D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556–559]. To prevent cognitive overload, task difficulty and support of each newly selected learning task can be adapted to the learner’s competence level and perceived task load, either by some external agent, the learner herself, or both. Health sciences students (N = 55) participated in a study using a 2 × 2 factorial design with the factors adaptation (present or absent) and control over task-selection (program control or shared control). As hypothesized, adaptation led to more efficient learning; that is, higher learning outcomes combined with less effort invested in performing the learning tasks. Shared control over task-selection led to higher task involvement, that is, higher learning outcomes combined with more effort directly invested in learning. Adaptation also produced greater task involvement.     

Prerequisite knowledge and time of testing in learning with animations and static pictures: Evidence for the expertise reversal effect

An animation can have an informational advantage over a static picture by depicting dynamic features. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the provision of prerequisite knowledge can help learners infer dynamic features from a static picture. It was assumed that this supposedly more active processing with a static picture would result in longer lasting knowledge representations. A 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects design with visualization format (static picture vs. animation), prerequisite knowledge (provided vs. not provided), and time of testing (immediate vs. one week later) was used (N = 260). The results of a transfer test showed that learners with low prerequisite knowledge benefited from the animation, but this was not the case for learners with high prerequisite knowledge. Time of testing had no influence. In line with the expertise reversal effect, prerequisite knowledge not only fostered learning with the static picture but also hindered learning with the animation.     

Investigating gaze behavior during processing of inconsistent text-picture information: Evidence for text-picture integration

In two experiments, eye tracking was used to investigate whether learners construct a mental representation during learning that integrates information from text and pictures. The experimental groups received inconsistent text-picture information on one or two pages of the learning materials. The control groups received only consistent text-picture information. It was expected that learners of the experimental groups should have difficulties in integrating text-picture information when faced with the inconsistencies. This should be reflected in their gaze behavior. Experiment 1 (N = 51) and Experiment 2 (N = 45) confirmed that assumption for several eye tracking variables. Regarding learning outcomes, only in Experiment 1 worse performance of the experimental group was observed. Furthermore, Experiment 2 revealed that the majority of learners did not remember the inconsistency between text and picture when asked for it after learning. In sum, the results add to our understanding about the cognitive processes underlying multimedia learning.     

Interactive and non-interactive pictures in multimedia learning environments: Effects on learning outcomes and learning efficiency

New technologies enable flexible combinations of text and interactive or non-interactive pictures. The aim of the present study was to investigate (a) whether adding pictures to texts is generally beneficial for learning or whether it can also have detrimental effects, (b) how interactivity of pictures affects learning, (c) whether the visualization format of pictures affects the structure of the learner's mental model, and (d) whether the visualization format modifies the effects of interactivity. One hundred university students were randomly assigned to five groups. In four groups, a text about the different daytimes and days on the earth was combined with interactive or non-interactive pictures of different visualization formats. In the fifth group, the text was presented without pictures. According to the results, adding pictures to text was neither beneficial nor harmful for learning. In terms of learning efficiency, however, learning from text only was more successful than learning from text and pictures. Interactivity was beneficial for one learning task, but not for the other task. The visualization format affected participants’ interaction with pictures, but not the learning outcomes; however this effect was not influenced by interactivity. Implications for multimedia design and for further research are pointed out.     

Eye tracking methodology for studying teacher learning: a review of the research

ABSTRACT

Eye tracking methodology offers insights into human attention, decision-making processes, and user behaviours. In the context of teacher learning, data generated from eye-tracking technology has the potential to provide important information about teachers’ behavioural patterns and cognitive processes that may or may not be occurring during learning experiences. This review analyses existing studies that use eye tracking methodology for studying teacher learning. The authors accessed three different databases (ERIC, PsycNet, and EBSCOHost) for their review. An iterative process of reviewing and coding the articles led to an in-depth review of 10 recently published articles. Emergent themes resulted from the in-depth review and include information processing, multimedia learning, learning tools and resources, and expert-novice knowledge construction. The reviewed articles also highlight how eye tracking can be used to determine teachers’ engagement with learning material, reading patterns, and sense-making strategies. Additional study characteristics, including context, data sources, eye tracking device and metrics were also reviewed. Results of this review shed light on how educational researchers can effectively use eye tracking methodology to investigate teacher learning at different career stages. This, in turn, can inform educational stakeholders about how to optimize learning opportunities and environments.     

Contextual animation in multimedia learning materials for pre-adolescents: The saga of null results continues

BackgroundEmotional design approaches tend to be instructionally effective in the case of higher education learners. However, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of emotional design for children is limited. Contextual animation is one way that emotional design can be realized. Contextual animation refers to the non-expository animation of context-providing representational pictures.AimThis study examines the effects of contextual animation on learning outcomes and situational interest in the case of pre-adolescents.SampleParticipants included 50 children 9–11 year of age recruited from all parts of the Czech Republic.MethodParticipants studied exponential growth and public opinion polls from two, 3-min-long, narrated videos; one included contextual animation and the other did not (counterbalanced within-subject design with randomization). Each child participated separately in one online session with a research administrator.ResultsAlthough animated videos triggered interest (d = 0.18, 0.36), null results were found both as regards learning outcomes and maintained situational interest.ConclusionsThis study adds to a small body of literature pointing at limited effects of emotional design approaches on pre-adolescents. Additional studies with young audiences and using other forms of emotional design would be a welcome addition to the literature.     

Design of learning objects for concept learning: effects of multimedia learning principles and an instructional approach

Literature suggests using multimedia learning principles in the design of instructional material. However, these principles may not be sufficient for the design of learning objects for concept learning in mathematics. This paper reports on an experimental study that investigated the effects of an instructional approach, which includes two teaching techniques – (a) variation theory and (b) representations of subject matter – on the design of learning objects for secondary school algebra concept learning. The results of this study showed that the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group on algebra learning achievement. The results also showed that only the experimental design with the addition of the instructional approach resulted in higher-order mathematical thinking skills and improved procedural skills of the students. Further analysis reveals that concept learning was simplified when multimedia learning principles were applied and the information was presented by the instructional approach.     

Extending the theoretical foundations of multimedia learning: Activation,integration, and validation occur when processing illustrated texts

BackgroundText illustrated by pictures (i.e., multimedia material) is often used to improve learning outcomes. To support learning, it is essential to understand and specify the ongoing cognitive processes when processing illustrated texts.AimsWe focus on three cognitive processes identified when processing non-illustrated texts: activation, integration, and validation. In three experiments, we investigated whether the three processes occur during the processing of illustrated texts and whether the processes differ between illustrated and non-illustrated texts.SamplesExperiment 1 had 170 participants, Experiment 2 had 221 participants, and Experiment 3 had 132 participants.MethodAll experiments used an adapted version of the contradiction paradigm. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants read texts that contained information that was consistent vs. inconsistent with a later sentence (target sentence). It was additionally varied whether a picture illustrated the consistent vs. inconsistent information. In Experiment 3, only the pictures were consistent or inconsistent with the target sentence. We measured reading times for the target sentence and the following sentence (spillover sentence).ResultsIn all three experiments, reading times were significantly longer in the inconsistent than in the consistent conditions. This prolongation of reading times was not affected by the picture in Experiments 1 and 2.ConclusionOur results indicate that activation, integration, and validation processes are similar when processing non-illustrated and illustrated texts (Experiments 1 and 2) and also occur when information is presented across text and picture (Experiment 3). We discuss the implications for the theoretical foundations of multimedia learning.     

How autonomy support mediates the relationship between self-efficacy and approaches to learning

Abstract

The significant interplay between self-efficacy, autonomy support and approaches to learning in adolescent students is widely recognized. However, less is known about whether substantial differences exist between early and middle adolescent students from schools with different environments. To close this research gap, this study used latent mean comparison and multigroup structural equation modeling with questionnaire data from a sample of German adolescent students (N?=?1153; M_AgeT1?=?13.97, SD = 1.37; M_AgeT2?=?14.27, SD = 1.25) in two waves. Multigroup structural equation modeling reveals that autonomy functions as a mediator in the association between self-efficacy and approaches to learning only for students from schools with a student-centered learning environment based on competence-matrices in contrast to a teacher-directed learning environment, particularly for early adolescent students. More specifically, adolescents’ approaches to learning can be enhanced through autonomy-supportive learning independently of their self-efficacy.     

Perceptions of the learning environment,learning preferences,and approaches to studying among medical students in Pakistan

Students at a Pakistani medical college were surveyed using instruments taken from Western research. The students who rated their courses positively tended to adopt an organised approach in their learning and studying. The students who perceived that their assessment and workload were inappropriate preferred a transmissive approach to teaching and adopted a surface approach in their learning and studying. The students who preferred a student-centred approach to teaching tended to adopt a deep approach in their learning and studying. This confirms the idea, well established in Western research, that there exists a strong relationship between students’ perceptions of their courses and the approaches that they adopt on those courses. However, the incorporation of problem-based learning in the medical curriculum had not led to any enhancement of their perceptions and preferences, nor had it led to an unambiguous improvement in their approaches to studying. This is attributed to the hybrid nature of their programmes, in which problem-based activities were combined with more conventional forms of teaching and assessment, and to the anxiety and stress which seem to be common among students at medical schools in Pakistan.     

Measuring learning: discrepancies between conceptions of and approaches to learning

This study is framed under the student approaches to learning tradition. The aim was to identify convergence in quantitative and qualitative responses of individuals when measuring their conceptions of and approaches to learning with a mixed methods design. A sample of 1110 Spanish Master’s level teacher education students completed a scale on approaches to learning (R-SPQ-2F), and a randomly selected subsample of 111 answered an open-ended question on how they learned. Overall, the qualitative and quantitative data did not support each other, as inventory responses showed a clear predominance of a deep, non-surface approach to learning, whereas qualitative answers reflected a tendency towards lower-order conceptions of learning. Inconsistencies in the results suggest future research ought to use a combination of techniques when exploring constructs such as learning should they wish to draw valid conclusions.     

Tutor learning: the role of explaining and responding to questions

Previous research on peer tutoring has found that students sometimes benefit academically from tutoring other students. In this study we combined quantitative and qualitative analyses to explore how untrained peer tutors learned via explaining and responding to tutee questions in a non-reciprocal tutoring setting. In support of our hypotheses, we found that tutors learned most effectively when their instructional activities incorporated reflective knowledge-building in which they monitored their own understanding, generated inferences to repair misunderstandings, and elaborated upon the source materials. However, tutors seemed to adopt a knowledge-telling bias in which they primarily summarized the source materials with little elaboration. Tutors’ reflective knowledge-building activities, when they occurred, were more frequently elicited by interactions with their tutee. In particular, when tutees asked questions that contained an inference or required an inferential answer, tutors’ responses were more likely to be elaborative and metacognitive. Directions for future research are also discussed.     

The impact of a university teaching development programme on student approaches to studying and learning experience: evidence from Chile

In this paper, we analyse the impact of teacher participation in a University Teaching Diploma on student approaches to studying and learning experience. A quasi-experimental and multilevel design was employed. University teachers answered the Approaches to Teaching Inventory and students completed the Course Experience Questionnaire and the Study Process Questionnaire. In addition, contextual variables were included for both teachers and students. The total sample included 44 teachers and 686 students. Of these, 25 university teachers had completed the University Teaching Diploma and 19 had not; 373 students were in courses with a diploma teacher and 313 in courses were not. Results show that those university teachers who have completed the programme have, in their courses, students who were more likely to declare having adopted a deep approach to studying than those teachers who have not participated in the diploma. At the same time, no significant impact was found on the student learning experience. For practical purposes, this investigation provides evidence for the value of teaching development programmes in promoting deeper approaches to studying. For research purposes, it proposes the use of multilevel models to evaluate the impact of university teaching diplomas.     

Aids to computer-based multimedia learning: a comparison of human tutoring and computer support

Learners are usually provided with support devices because they find it difficult to learn from multimedia presentations. A key question, with no clear answer so far, is how best to present these support devices. One possibility is to insert them intothe multimedia presentation (canned support), while another is to have a human agent provide them (human tutoring). Human tutoring poses potential advantages: it uses spoken modality, displays non-verbal cues and implies social interaction. However, there is mixed evidence regarding these supposed advantages, and prior research comparing human and computer support presents problems. Our goal was to explore whether the advantages of human tutoring actually exist while avoiding the problems of prior research. In one experiment, participants learned Geology from a multimedia presentation including one of three forms of support: human tutoring, canned support or no support. After viewing the presentation, participants solved retention and transfer tests. Results revealed that participants in the human tutoring condition outperformed those in the other two conditions, who did not differ from each other. This means that human tutoring is advantageous, a fact that has implications in the design of support devices in multimedia learning.     

Organisational learning approaches to school leadership and management: teachers' values and perceptions of practice

In this article, we report results of a survey of 1,397 teachers in 26 primary and 17 secondary schools in England as part of the Learning How to Learn project. We consider how school self-evaluation can be understood within an organisational learning frame. Factor analysis of teachers' responses helped us identify 4 dimensions of organisational learning approaches to school leadership and management. Comparisons were made between teachers' perceptions of school leadership and management practices and the values they placed on those practices. We discuss the usefulness of analysing values-practice gaps for furthering understanding of organisational learning approaches to school leadership and management. Analysis of gaps between teachers' values and practices reveals significant inconsistencies between perceptions of current practices and values across a broad spectrum of school leadership and management practices. Perceptions of practice were significantly behind the values that teachers place on each of the 4 dimensions of practice.     

The merits of representational pictures in educational assessment: Evidence for cognitive and motivational effects in a time-on-task analysis

Adding representational pictures (RPs) to text-based items has been shown to improve students’ test performance. Focusing on potential explanations for this multimedia effect in testing, we propose two functions of RPs in testing, namely, (1) a cognitive facilitation function and (2) a motivational function. We found empirical support for both functions in this computer-based classroom experiment with N = 410 fifth and sixth graders. All students answered 36 manipulated science items that either contained (text-picture) or did not contain (text-only) an RP that visualized the text information in the item stem. Each student worked on both item types, following a rotated within-subject design. We measured students’ (a) solution success, (b) time on task (TOT), and identified (c) rapid-guessing behavior (RGB). We used generalized and linear mixed-effects models to investigate RPs’ impact on these outcome parameters and considered students’ level of test engagement and item positions as covariates. The results indicate that (1) RPs improved all students’ performance across item positions in a comparable manner (multimedia effect in testing). (2) RPs have the potential to accelerate item processing (cognitive facilitation function). (3) The presence of RPs reduced students’ RGB rates to a meaningful extent (motivational function). Overall, our data indicate that RPs may promote more reliable test scores, supporting a more valid interpretation of students’ achievement levels.     

Reception learning and self-discovery learning in histology: Students' perceptions and their implications for assessing the effectiveness of different learning modalities

Two questionnaires were used to investigate students' perceptions of their motivation to opt for reception learning (RL) or self‐discovery learning (SDL) in histology and their choices of complementary learning strategies (CLS). The results demonstrated that the motivation to attend RL sessions was higher than the motivation to attend SDL to gain new knowledge (P < 0.01) and to apply this acquired knowledge to diagnosis (P < 0.01), therapy (P < 0.01), and research (P < 0.05). Students also showed a stronger preference for RL based on motivations related to leadership (P < 0.01) and competition (P < 0.01), although the rates were very low in both cases (≤ 1.9 ± 1.1). Statistically significant differences were found between male and female students for leadership (higher in males), responsibility (higher in females), and acquiring new knowledge (higher in females only in RL). This study's findings for students' preferred CLS strategies suggested a greater need for additional complementary resources after RL than after SDL (P < 0.01). In conclusion, RL was associated with a greater need for complementary training resources such as textbooks, atlases, the internet, audiovisual media, and tutorials, whereas SDL was associated with a greater need to orient teaching and training toward medical practice. These results suggest the need to reorient both types of learning processes to enhance their effectiveness in teaching histology, especially in the case of SDL, which should place more emphasis on clinically oriented knowledge. Anat Sci Educ. © 2012 American Association of Anatomists.