‘True fan = watch match’? In search of the ‘Authentic’ soccer fan

Academics have created typologies to divide association football (soccer) fans into categories based upon the ‘authenticity’ of their fandom practices. One of the main requirements of ‘authentic’ fandom has been assumed to be match attendance. The goal of this paper was to critically assess this assumption by considering how fans themselves talk about the significance of match attendance as evidence of ‘authentic’ fandom. In the light of the fact that the voices of English non-league fans on the ‘authenticity’ debate have so far been overshadowed by the overbearing focus of much previous research on the upper echelons of English soccer, an e-survey was conducted with 151 members of an online community of fans of English Northern League (NL) clubs (a semi-professional / amateur league based in North East England). Findings revealed that opinion was divided on the constituents of ‘authentic’ fandom and match attendance was not deemed to be the core evidence of support for a club by 42% of the sample. Elias (1978) suggested that dichotomous thinking hinders sociological understanding and it is concluded that fan typologies are not sufficient for assessing the ‘authenticity’ of fan activities.     

The effect of equipment scaling on children’s sport performance: the case for tennis

The influence of scaling court-size and net height on children’s tennis performance was examined. Sixteen boys (9.7 ± 0.5 years) had to perform a 30-min match in four different conditions, where court-size and/or net height were scaled by using a scaling ratio based on the differences in temporal demands between the children and the adult game. These 30-min matches were analysed using Tennis Analyst (FairPlay Ltd., Jindalee, QLD, Australia) software to determine typical tennis match performance characteristics. Children hit more winners, more forced errors, played more volleys, struck more shots from a comfortable height and played in a more forward court position when the net was scaled. Scaling both the court and net lead to a faster children’s game, more closely approximating what is typical of the adult game. The differences between the typical tennis performance variables recorded suggested that scaling the net led to a more aggressive way of playing. Further, children enjoyed playing on the standard court–scaled net condition more than standard adult conditions. It is suggested that optimising the scaling of net height may be as critical as other task constraints, such as racquet length or court-size, as it leads to a more engaging learning environment for experienced children.     

‘A galaxy of sporting events’: sport’s role and significance in the Festival of Britain, 1951

The 1951 Festival of Britain has long been seen as a key moment in the country’s post-war history – especially in terms of popularising modern architecture and contemporary interior design, as well as symbolising the transition from acute economic austerity to a long period of relative affluence. However, successive writers have largely or completely ignored sport’s role in the Festival project. This paper argues that, in fact, sporting fixtures played an important role in the national and local festivities which were staged between May and September 1951. Their range, diversity and popularity means that the Festival should begin to be seen as a more successful and less insular event than previous studies have suggested. On the other hand, the support that such fixtures received from various newspapers and via the airwaves – courtesy of the BBC – indicates that the Festival faced far less media (and, indeed, political) opposition than its organisers liked to suggest and most historians have hitherto accepted. By studying the Festival’s sports programme, therefore, it is possible to gain fresh insights into the project as a whole and reassess its overall performance.     

The fan as actor: the popularization of soccer and Brazil’s sports audience

This essay presents a general perspective on the early history of soccer audiences in Brazil. Based on fans’ own experiences in Rio de Janeiro, the former national capital, it explains how fans played a fundamental role in turning soccer into a popular and widely accepted sport in the country. Initially bound to elite circles during the late nineteenth century, soccer raised increasing interest in Brazilian society in general throughout the twentieth century, thus forcing the building of huge arenas. The new stadiums led authorities to become increasingly worried about fans’ discipline and behaviour. One of their concerns was organized fan groups, which appeared on the scene after soccer became professionalized in the 1940s. These groups, as the essay argues, sought to support their clubs and to emotionally drive the masses of fans.     

‘Sport was the centre of my memories’: the performance of sport in Australia’s Asian garrisons

ABSTRACT

For better or worse, sport mirrors and mediates much of everyday life. Within both the military and colonial spheres, the physical attributes of sport are especially prized as tangible representations of social and cultural hierarchies. In turn, this further enhances the prestige and influence of sport within these two particular environments. Sport becomes particularly potent in instances where military forces undertake garrison duties in overseas colonial and post-colonial environs. This paper highlights the centrality of sport to the lives of the Australian service personnel and their families who were posted to Australia’s garrisons in the decades after World War II. The myriad roles of sport within these overseas garrison environments – as comforter, connector, healer and reinforcer on the one hand, and as isolator, oppressor and subverter on the other – are explored. This paper suggests that, for a variety of reasons, participation in sports served as the central organising force for most Australian service personnel and their families in these Australian military communities.     

Scandinavian women’s football: the importance of male and female pioneers in the development of the sport

ABSTRACT

The importance of female and male pioneers in the development of women’s football in Scandinavia is in focus, where some of the female pioneers’ experiences presented. Sif Kalvø from Western Norway was the first known Scandinavian female football player who played abroad in Italy in 1971, and she was one of the pioneers. She was dependent on door openers in Norway and abroad. The door openers role, in making professional football possible; how the professional contracts came through; and why the Scandinavian female footballers went global in the early phases, discussed. To study this the Norwegian Mother of Women’s football, Målfrid Kuvås, and other female pioneer footballers are in-depth interviewed. Kuvås’ large collection of scrapbooks with media coverage, letters and other correspondence from the 1960s to 2000s are also studied. Qualitative in-depth interviews carried out, with five of the early professionals and five of the leaders involved in the migration processes. Secondary sources are academic literature and sport media. The dream about playing professional football, and to be able to live from football brought female players across the globe. Due to this, migration research is of interest when studying women’s football, and ‘push’- and ‘pull’- factors in migration are discussed.     

A sport for all programme in school: girls’ experiences

This article examines a Swedish Sport for All Programme (SAP) in school. We use a case study to discuss girls’ debut in alternative sports programme organized in collaboration between school and the sports movement. The empirical data are derived from repeated focus group interviews with one group of seven 10-year-old girls participating in one SAP. The analyses focus on their subjective experiences and how broader gender structures influence these experiences. Drawing on the results of this study, we argue that certain sports can be interpreted as oppressive activities that produce asymmetric power relationships between different groups of children. Simultaneously, the girls see the idea of sports as joyful activities, without male abuse and oppression or hierarchical gender relationships. Based on the girls’ accounts, we claim that both the leaders and the children actively reproduce gender stereotypes in the SAP.     

Is sport good for older adults? A systematic review of psychosocial outcomes of older adults’ sport participation

Although sport is promoted as a vehicle to enhance health and well-being throughout the life course, little is known about the psychosocial benefits and costs associated with sport participation in older adulthood. A mixed studies systematic review of English-language, peer-reviewed, original research articles (from the earliest record until March 2015) was undertaken to identify psychosocial outcomes of sport for adults over age 65 and to determine whether sport provides psychosocial outcomes that are distinct from other forms of physical activity. Results suggest sport involvement later in life was related to ageing, cognitive/perceptual, emotional, social, and motivational outcomes but it remains unclear whether these effects were solely related to participation in sport. Additional work with increased attention to methodological design and participant recruitment is needed to better understand psychosocial outcomes of older adults’ sport participation and to inform potential interventions. Recommendations to enhance the quality of future studies in the area are discussed.     

“If people are wearing pink stuff they’re probably not real fans”: Exploring women’s perceptions of sport fan clothing

Given the growth in the female sport fan base of North American major league sports and the development and expansion of women’s team-related apparel, the purpose of this study was to examine women sport fans’ perceptions of team apparel. The authors collected data through in-depth interviews with 16 Canadian women who self-identified as fans of professional sport teams. They perceived a lack of options in team apparel, despite the development of women’s clothing lines. Analysis of the aesthetics, symbolism, and instrumentality of team apparel using a third-wave feminist approach provides socio-cultural explanations for women fans’ dissatisfaction with existing offerings. This approach advances understandings of the social circumstances shaping women’s sport experiences as fans and the impact of gender on consumer engagement. Results suggest that sport teams need to recognize the diversity of women’s gender identities and expressions and provide a wider range of clothing that demonstrate their status as authentic fans.     

Gender equality,sport and the United Nation’s system. A historical overview of the slow pace of progress

Abstract

The history, milestones and (sluggish) progress towards gender equality within the interconnected movements of sport, international development and human rights are reflective of the broader feminist struggle. In this paper, we shall explore how key stakeholders, such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the (former) United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace (UNOSDP), the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Working Group (IWG) on Women and Sport together with other women and sport organisations have been working to promote gender equality within and beyond sport. Despite decades of parallel or synchronized effort, critics contend that progress is slow and uneven, leaving generations of girls and women marginalized. In this article, we explain the progression towards a renewed initiative to create a UNESCO Global Observatory for Women, Sport, Physical Education and Physical Activity and discuss how the observatory should serve as a nexus of these collective movements by bringing advocacy, research and action together in one platform.     

Football,sport and the development of young people’s life skills

The development of life skills has been associated with participation in sport, football and other physical activities. A factor in enabling this ambition to be realized is the actions and behaviours of sports coaches. Drawing on the concept of positive youth development through sport, the first part of this paper considers the types of environments coaches need to create in order for players to develop life skills. The second part of this paper discusses formal coach education and its role in developing coaches’ knowledge of life skills development. The third and final section of this paper offers an alternative explanation of how people’s exposure to certain social contexts results in the development of life skills. A review of literature in these areas reveals that the role sport and football has played in players’ development of life skills is unclear and in need of future research attention.     

Is “school sport” associated with school belongingness? Testing the influence of school sport policy

One of the primary justifications for middle school sport is the presumed association between sport participation and school belongingness. However, concerns regarding school sport values have called this association into question. Previous researchers have focused primarily on school sport as a single entity, with far less consideration for the different policies available to guide sport management and delivery in the school context. The authors examine the association between sport participation and school belongingness under two sport policies (i.e., interscholastic and intramural). Moderated mediation analysis is used to examine the relationships underpinning this connection in both policy contexts. Results indicate differences across policy contexts related to the salience of perceived sport and academic competence. The discussion highlights intriguing implications for sport administrators regarding school sport policy, particularly as it pertains to promoting school belongingness.     

Deconstructing high performance Nordic sport: the case study of women’s handball (the ‘team as method’)

Abstract

The principal purpose of this study was to record and explore the changing coaching landscape within elite Norwegian women’s handball from 2003 to 2005. This was in relation to critically understanding the culture created within the context, and the precise role(s) of head coach Marit Breivik, the assistant coaches, and the athletes in question, in its creation. The significance of the paper lies in enhancing understanding the ‘Nordic model’ of society, inclusive of its emphasis on equality, tolerance, consensus and cooperation, and the ways in which this is constructed, explored and challenged within and through sport. When appointed in 1994, Breivik inherited a high performance system not unlike any other in international sport; one dominated by metrics, compliance and control. It was one she wanted to change to better reflect the Nordic values of integration, interdependence and egalitarianism. The study’s method comprised an in depth ethnography where the principal author spent two years embedded within the setting. The results, deduced from inductive analysis of the collected data, are discussed in terms of two principal themes. First, the initial attempts at culture change by Breivik and the inevitable resistance experienced; and second, the relational strategy she adopted to overcome such resistance (including that of establishing the ‘team as method’). Finally, a conclusion reflects on the meaning of such findings, touching on the dual explanatory notions of ‘progressive repair’ and that of the coach as a ‘virtuoso actor’.     

Sex,sport and justice: reframing the ‘who’ of citizenship and the ‘what’ of justice in European and UK sport policy

Universalist claims are often made about sport which is, as a consequence, increasingly written into national and international policy as an entitlement of citizenship or even human right. Further, in most countries physical education (PE) is a compulsory component of children's education, and sport is seen as central to this. Consequently, in the interests of justice sport must aspire to be egalitarian, that is, relevant to and meaningful for boys and men, and girls and women. In this context three fundamental questions are asked in relation to sport: (1) Do all citizens want to participate? (2) Who counts as a citizen? and (3) What are justice and equality? Feminist political and citizenship theory particularly the work of Pateman, Lister and Fraser is used to explore these questions and interrogate the ‘who’ of citizenship and the ‘what’ of justice in relation to framing sport policy in Europe and the UK. It is argued that notwithstanding the extensive use of the Council of Europe definition of sport,¹1. ‘“Sport” means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels' (CE, 1992 CE. (1992/2001). European sports charter. Retrieved from https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=Rec(92)13&;Sector=secCM&;Language=lanEnglish&;Ver=rev&;BackColorInternet=9999CC&;BackColorIntranet=FFBB55&;BackColorLogged=FFAC75 [Google Scholar]–2001 CE. (1992/2001). European sports charter. Retrieved from https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=Rec(92)13&;Sector=secCM&;Language=lanEnglish&;Ver=rev&;BackColorInternet=9999CC&;BackColorIntranet=FFBB55&;BackColorLogged=FFAC75 [Google Scholar]). and despite or even because of the widespread adoption of the language of gender equality and gender mainstreaming, although formal sport citizenship rights might be accorded to all individuals and regarded as gender neutral, this masks a discourse of androcentric sport citizenship. This has captured European and UK sport policy and provision and is hindering further progress towards gender justice in sport and therefore PE. Given the universal and compulsory aspirations of sport particularly within PE, gender justice should be conceptualised not only as cultural recognition, political representation and economic redistribution within the normalised frame of competitive performance sport or ‘sport for sports sake’; but also as a critical meta-political remapping and reframing of sport as sport and physical recreation or ‘sport for all’.     

Sex,drugs and science: the IOC’s and IAAF’s attempts to control fairness in sport

Abstract

This paper traces the history of two important policies in sport: rules against drugs and ‘ambiguous’ athletes in women’s events. We identify three phases in the work of the International Olympic Committee’s and International Amateur Athletic Federation’s medical committees: (1) from the mid-1960s to the 1970s, the medical grounding of the committees and the members’ worldviews encouraged the groups to enlist scientific techniques to solve drug use and sex ambiguity issues; (2) from the 1970s to the 1980s, administrative confusion underscored both committees, but scientific personnel gained legitimacy and furthered their own agendas; and (3) from the 1980s to the mid-1980s, the seeds of diversion in sex and drug tests were sown. The central finding of this study is that the stakeholders who shaped anti-doping and sex testing policies took for granted concerns regarding ethics and instead increasingly relied upon medical, scientific, and technical practices to define and control fairness in sport.