面向问题导向学习的3C3R问题设计模型述评

问题导向学习是针对问题解决过程所进行的学习,对于问题导向学习而言,问题设计的有效性直接影响着问题导向学习的成功实施。研究已经表明,在所施行的问题导向学习中,设计的问题并非总是有效的。无效的问题不仅会影响到学生获得足够的领域知识,也会影响到学生问题解决能力或高阶思维能力的发展。美国北达科他州大学洪啤博士于2006年就面向问题导向学习提出了问题设计的3C3R模型。3C3R模型包括两类成分：核心成分和过程成分。核心成分是内容、情境和联系（content,context and connection）,这3个核心成分主要用来支持领域知识的学习,如概念、规则和原理知识。过程成分是探究、推理和反思（researching,reasoning and reflecting）,这3个过程成分则关注学习者的认知学习过程,用来支持学生应用所获得的领域知识来解决复杂问题,发展学生高级思维能力及学生自我导向能力。洪啤博士长期对问题导向学习、问题解决、问题类型与难度、系统思考与建模等主题进行研究,他提出的3C3R模型解决了教学设计者和教师在问题导向学习设计中的实际问题。本文将围绕问题导向学习的本质及其有效性来介绍了3C3R问题设计模型创建的基本观点、构成要件及其应用价值。     

GiveMe Shelter: a people-centred design process for promoting independent inquiry-led learning in engineering

It has become increasingly common for tasks traditionally carried out by engineers to be undertaken by technicians and technologist with access to sophisticated computers and software that can often perform complex calculations that were previously the responsibility of engineers. Not surprisingly, this development raises serious questions about the future role of engineers and the education needed to address these changes in technology as well as emerging priorities from societal to environmental challenges. In response to these challenges, a new design module was created for undergraduate engineering students to design and build temporary shelters for a wide variety of end users from refugees, to the homeless and children. Even though the module provided guidance on principles of design thinking and methods for observing users needs through field studies, the students found it difficult to respond to needs of specific end users but instead focused more on purely technical issues.     

Instructional design for distance learning

An intrinsic link exists between instructional design (ID) and distance learning (DL). Their inextricability in the real world raises specific problems of interest in the field of ID. In no other teaching/learning situation is ID so essential as in DL. The conditions of DL make it a necessity to have long-term instructional planning, cost analysis, curriculum and course development, instructional materials development and maintenance, delivery plans, and detailed evaluation rules. Without all of these components, DL simply could not happen. It took some time for this neccessity to be acknowledged, as can be seen in the history of DL. However, ID becomes even more critical as increasingly costly and complex means are used. Conditions of learning have special features in DL, such as the role of media, since the professor, teacher or instructor is replaced by media for either transmitting information or for organizing learning activities. In this paper, the term distance learning will be used to mean media-based, remote or asynchronous learning supported by an instructional system. This paper introduces general features of DL and examines essential aspects of ID for DL, with special emphasis on ID methodologies and on media selection.     

Effects of different sequences of examples and problems on motivation and learning

Recent research has shown that example study only (EE) and example-problem pairs (EP) were more effective (i.e., higher test performance) and efficient (i.e., attained with less effort invested in learning and/or test tasks) than problem-example pairs (PE) and problem solving only (PP). We conducted two experiments to investigate how different example and problem-solving sequences would affect motivational (i.e., self-efficacy, perceived competence, and topic interest) and cognitive (i.e., effectiveness and efficiency) aspects of learning. In Experiment 1, 124 technical students learned a mathematical task with the help of EEEE, EPEP, PEPE, or PPPP and then completed a posttest. Students in the EEEE Condition showed higher posttest performance, self-efficacy, and perceived competence, attained with less effort investment, than students in the EPEP and PPPP Condition. Surprisingly, there were no differences between the EPEP and PEPE Condition on any of the outcome measures. We hypothesized that, because the tasks were relevant for technical students, starting with a problem might not have negatively affected their motivation. Therefore, we replicated the experiment with a different sample of 81 teacher training students. Experiment 2 showed an efficiency benefit of EEEE over EPEP, PEPE, and PPPP. However, only EEEE resulted in greater posttest performance, self-efficacy, and perceived competence than PPPP. We again did not find any differences between the EPEP and PEPE Condition. These results suggest that, at least when short training phases are used, studying examples (only) is more preferable than problem solving only for learning. Moreover, this study showed that example study (only) also enhances motivational aspects of learning whereas problem solving only does not positively affect students’ motivation at all.     

Designing for learning in the Yellow House: a comparison of instructional and learning design origins and practices

ABSTRACT

For the past two decades, there has been persistent debate around whether there is a difference between the fields of instructional design (ID) and learning design (LD). While differences in the two approaches are certainly apparent, there are cross-over points that can provide ID and LD researchers and practitioners with opportunities for dialogue about the purposes and remit of research-based practices for optimal design. Though potentially disruptive, initiating dialogues among learning and instructional designers could lead to more thorough and critical analyses of both ID and LD repertoires. Should boundary crossings occur, there is a potential for a third space for the contemplation, research, and practice of design. A goal of this article is to use the notion of Van Gogh’s Yellow House as an anchoring metaphor for the third space – a location for shared discourse, inspiration, collaboration, and challenge for a community of designers of/for learning. Using the impressionist and expressionist terminology to help elucidate the ways of thinking of designers of both traditions, this article examines the history, underlying philosophical approaches, methodologies, and design goals of ID and LD. We conclude that the emergence of a third space for design can help us move beyond the LD and ID dichotomies. We suggest that a socio-materialist perspective alleviates issues of incommensurability by acknowledging ontological multiplicity.     

Effect of problem-based learning in pharmacology education: A meta-analysis

A consensus is emerging for meta-analyses regarding a range of selected topics in pharmacology education. This review provides a critical overview of problem-based learning (PBL) in pharmacology education. Based on several inclusion criteria, databases were searched, and 37 controlled trial studies were identified and extracted. The meta-analysis found that PBL had a positive effect on gaining higher theoretical scores (SMD = 6.77, 95% CI [5.23, 8.31], p < 0.00,001) assessed through examinations. The results of questionnaires for students’ feedback showed that PBL was superior to conventional teaching methods in improving students’ outcomes of self-study, learning interest, team spirit, problem solving, analyzing, scope of knowledge, communication, and expression. These results suggest that PBL in pharmacology education is considered superior to traditional lecture-based learning.     

Case study of a problem-based learning course of project management for senior engineering students

The analysis of the current state of the Ukrainian system of engineering education indicates the prevalence of traditional teaching–learning approaches in contrast to the modern needs of the labour market. Many universities across the world use the problem/project-based learning (PBL) which is an effective approach for the development of design and management skills of engineering students. The paper describes a detailed structure of a PBL course in project management and practical experience related to its implementation in an engineering degree programme at Bohdan Khmelnytsky National University of Cherkasy. Also, the results of surveys carried out in order to study the students’ generic competences’ development and perception of the PBL process are presented. The results show that students understand the diversity of PBL aspects and the influence of the PBL approach on their professional characteristics such as teamwork, ability of self-directed learning, communication and problem-solving skills.     

Teacher learning in collaborative curriculum design

The Interconnected Model of Professional Growth (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002) was used to identify processes of teacher learning during the collaborative design of curriculum materials in the context of curriculum innovation. Nine published studies from six different countries about teachers’ collaborative curriculum design were analyzed to identify the learning processes that collaborative curriculum design fosters. It was concluded that the Interconnected Model of Professional Growth, although initially developed to recognize learning processes in individual teachers, can also be used to identify learning processes that are fostered by collaborative curriculum design in teams of teachers.     

Influence of problem familiarity on learning in a problem-based course

The results of an experimental study investigating the influence of problem familiarity on learning in a problem-based psychology course are presented. Participants worked with either a familiar or an unfamiliar version of the same problem. The following measurements were taken (1) a measure of problem quality as perceived by students, (2) number of explanations of the problem put forward by the students while discussing it, (3) quality of learning issues derived from the discussion, (4) amount of time spent on self-study, and (5) the amount of knowledge acquired as indicated by a test. The results demonstrate that participants in the familiar problem condition perceived the problem to be of higher quality than the participants in the unfamiliar problem condition. No significant differences in learning were found. The findings do suggest, however, that problems may be improved by making them more relevant to the everyday experience of students.     

The effect of peer assessment on problem solving skills of prospective teachers supported by online learning activities

This study examined the effect of peer assessment on prospective teachers’ performances in complex problem solving. This study also investigated how feedback functions, agreement with peer feedback, and feedback direction affected the use of feedback. The participants included 68 prospective teachers enrolled in the Teaching Methods-2 course during 2012–2013 spring semester and 14 prospective teachers pursuing MA studies on Computer Education and Instructional Technology. The data included prospective teachers’ case solutions and MA students’ feedback reports. The results indicated that groups in both feedback and non-feedback conditions improved on developing solutions for the problems. Additionally, the results showed that while feedback function and feedback direction predicted the use of feedback, prospective teachers’ agreement with feedback was not related to the feedback use. Suggestions were made for further research in line with the findings.     

The effect of problem-based learning on the metacognitive awareness of pre-service science teachers

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of problem-based learning (PBL) on the metacognitive awareness of pre-service science teachers. In the study, an experimental design with pre-test/post-test control group was used. A total of 51 junior pre-service science teachers participated in the study. The study was carried out over 10 weeks and within the scope of an environmental science course. During the study, lessons in the experimental group were processed using a PBL approach while lessons in the control group were processed using a traditional teaching approach. Data were collected through a personal information form and Metacognitive Awareness Inventory. Data were then analysed using PASW Statistics 18 (SPSS Inc.). The findings of the study revealed that PBL could be an effective intervention to promote metacognitive awareness towards procedural knowledge, planning and debugging. The results are discussed based on the findings of the study.     

The effect of problem-based learning on the environmental attitudes of preservice science teachers

This study attempted to investigate the effect of problem-based learning (PBL) on the environmental attitudes of preservice science teachers. In the study, an experimental design was used with a pre-test and post-test control group. In all, 51 junior preservice science teachers participated in the study. The study was carried out over 10 weeks within the scope of an environmental science course. During the study, lessons in the experimental group were processed using a PBL approach while lessons in the control group were processed using a traditional teaching approach. Data were collected through a personal information form and environmental attitudes inventory. Data were then analysed using PASW Statistics 18 (SPSS Inc.). The findings of the study revealed a statistically significant increase in favour of the experimental group preservice science teachers’ environmental attitudes. An increase in environmental attitudes was also found in the control group; however, this increase was not statistically significant. As a result, PBL was found to be more effective than the traditional teaching approach in the development of environmental attitudes in preservice science teachers.     

Thematic review of approaches to design group learning activities in higher education: The development of a comprehensive framework

Group Learning Activities (GLAs) are a key ingredient of course designs in higher education. Various approaches for designing GLAs have been developed, featuring different design components. However, this has not yet resulted in clear guidelines for teachers on how to design GLAs. The purpose of this thematic review is to synthesize insights from various approaches for designing GLAs into one comprehensive framework. This comprehensive framework, the Group Learning Activities Instructional Design (GLAID) framework, includes eight components: (1) interaction, (2) learning objectives and outcomes, (3) assessment, (4) task characteristics, (5) structuring, (6) guidance, (7) group constellation, and (8) facilities. Each component, associated design decisions, and the corresponding design process are described. The GLAID framework aims to guide teachers in higher education in designing, implementing, and evaluating GLAs in their courses.     

The influence of scaffolded computerised science problem solving on motivational aspects

ABSTRACT

The current study focused on scaffolding programmes, including cognitive and meta-cognitive components, for science problem solving in a computerised learning environment to identify their unique effects on aspects of student motivation. Using expectancy-value theory as a conceptual framework, the current study focused on two motivational aspects: intrinsic value and perceived cost. Four scaffolding components were identified (structural, reflective, subject matter and enrichment) and used in different configurations to construct four scaffolding programmes ranging from low support (Enrichment) to partial support (Operative and Strategic) to full support (Integrated). The participants were seventh-grade students (N?=?458) sampled from 15 different classes in 3 middle schools. The classes were randomly assigned to the five treatment groups (four ‘scaffolding programmes’ and one control). The intervention was conducted over approximately 6 months as part of the regular class curriculum. The first phase of the study was based on self-report surveys distributed twice to all participants, and the second phase was based on observations of a sub-sample (N?=?145). The findings indicated that the integrated group demonstrated the most adaptive patterns of motivation. Specifically, the integrated group was the only group that showed no decline in intrinsic value or increases in perceived cost. Both the strategic and integrated groups had higher levels of observed willingness to invest effort and reports of intentional learning when using the scaffolding software. The common feature of these groups is the reflection component, which implies that reflection and its combination with subject matter have positive effects on motivation.     

The critical, relational practice of instructional design in higher education: an emerging model of change agency

This paper offers an emerging interpretive framework for understanding the active role instructional designers play in the transformation of learning systems in higher education. A 3-year study of instructional designers in Canadian universities revealed how, through reflexive critical practice, designers are active, moral, political, and influential in activating change at interpersonal, professional, institutional and societal levels. Through narrative inquiry the voices of designers reflect the scope of agency, community and relational practice in which they regularly engage with faculty in institutions of higher learning.

成人学习设计模式及学习策略探究

成人的特点决定了成人的学习模式是自我导向式学习,学习过程的制定和控制者是成人学习者自己,所以学习设计至关重要。本文给出了一个理论和可操作过程相结合的具有三层结构和三个流程的学习设计模型。同时,给出一些有关成人学习设计和实施过程的学习策略。     

基于3C3R模型的问题设计过程及其案例透视

美国北达科他州大学洪哞博士提出的3C3R问题设计模型只是一个概念设计框架,设计者可以参照这一框架来理解如何有效地形成问题和设计问题,也可以此作为概念框架来评价问题的有效性。按照3C3R的概念框架来具体设计一个有效的问题,这是问题导向学习成功的关键。洪唪博士按照3C3R问题设计模型中核心成分用来支持领域知识的学习,过程成分用来支持学生应用所获得的领域知识来解决复杂问题,发展学生高级思维能力及学生自我导向能力的思路,在实践中探索出了九个设计步骤,通过设计案例确证和检验了九个设计步骤的有效性,并就3C3R问题设计模型及其设计过程的理论价值、实践价值及其应用有效性进行了进一步的论述。     

Professional learning as a predictor for instructional quality: a secondary analysis of TALIS

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of teachers’ professional learning opportunities on instructional quality, which represents a combined approach of behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist principles in teaching. We incorporated professional learning communities (PLCs), professional development (PD) days, as well as 3 PD types (traditional, reform-based, and informal) to provide a comprehensive account of teachers’ professional learning opportunities. Using the extant large-scale data, the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), from 3,213 middle-school teachers in Turkey, we found that PLCs and reform-based PD activities produced statistically significant effects on instructional quality, ranging from high to moderate effects, all other PD variables held constant. Discussion on the results was centered on the schools for being a venue for professional learning and the potential of collaborative structures to promote teachers’ development.     

Designing and implementing a case-based learning environment for enhancing ill-structured problem solving: classroom management problems for prospective teachers

This design-based research study is aimed at two goals: (1) developing a feasible case-based instructional model that could enhance college students’ ill-structured problem solving abilities, while (2) implementing the model to improve teacher education students’ real-world problem solving abilities to deal with dilemmas faced by practicing teachers in elementary classrooms. To achieve these goals, an online case-based learning environment for classroom management problem solving (CBL-CMPS) was developed based on Jonassen’s (in: Reigeluth (ed.) Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, 1999) constructivist learning environment model and the general process of ill-structured problem solving (1997). Two successive studies, in which the effectiveness of the CBL-CMPS was tested while the CBL-CMPS was revised, showed that the individual components of the CBL-CMPS promoted ill-structured problem solving abilities respectively, and that the CBL-CMPS as a whole learning environment was effective to a degree for the transfer of learning in ill-structured problem solving. The potential, challenge, and implications of the CBL-CMPS are discussed.

Control engineering,system theory and mathematics: the teacher's challenge

The principles, difficulties and challenges in control education are discussed and compared to the similar problems in the teaching of mathematics and systems science in general. The difficulties of today's students to appreciate the classical teaching of engineering disciplines, which are based on rigorous and scientifically sound grounds, are discussed. The new demands for modern engineering education assume that the mathematical skills of the students in modelling, analysis, synthesis, simulation and validation of control problems improve significantly, which sets a major challenge to the education system. To meet that challenge new activating teaching methods are needed, which together with traditional studies bring the students closer to practical applications. In the current paper two new teaching methods are presented, which are aimed at bringing the control world near the student more easily than the traditional courses do. These example cases are control courses in the net with self-study sections, interactive repetitive questions, problems with complete solutions (both pen and paper and computer problems). Also, new ‘interactive laboratory exercises’ have been included, where the students prepare their preliminary problems first, and after that test the controller with a real process over the net (from their home or from a computer class).