Modelling students' construction of energy models in physics

One of the main differences between novice and expert problem solving in physics is that novices mostly construct problem representations from objects and events in the experimental situation, whereas experts construct representations closer to theoretical terms and entities. A main difficulty in physics is in interrelating these two levels, i.e. in modelling. Relatively little research has been done on this problem, most work in AI, psychology and physics education having concentrated on how students use representations in problem solving, rather than on the complex process of how they construct them. We present a study that aims to explore how students construct models for energy storage, transformation and transfers in simple experimental situations involving electricity and mechanics. The study involved detailed analysis of problem solving dialogues produced by pairs of students, and AI modelling of these processes. We present successively more refined models that are capable of generating ideal solutions, solutions for individual students for a single task, then models for individuals across different tasks. The students' construction of energy models can be modelled in terms of the simplest process of modelling — establishing term to term relations between elements of the object/event world and the theory/model world, with underlying linear causal reasoning. Nevertheless, our model is unable to take into account more sophisticated modelling processes in students. In conclusion we therefore describe future work on the development of a new model that could take such processes into account.1. CHENE = CHaîne ENErgetique, or Energy Chain. (In French Chêne also means oak).2. Throughout the rest of the paper we use the following simple notation in order to avoid possible confusion between modelling as a process performed by the students, in the domain of physics, and AI modelling of the former modelling process: students' modelling in physics = modelling _SP ; AI modelling (of modelling _SP ) = modelling _AI .3. It has not been necessary to use more sophisticated strategies at the stage of our work reported here. The next system, modelCHENE, will directly address this issue.4. Note that what we refer to in this context as problem solving may in another context be viewed as construction of a qualitative representation for subsequent quantitative problem solving.5. The protocols indicate that students use this as a kind of anchor in their reasoning-some students returning to it in order to resolve impasses. As the current problem solver provides no mechanism for handling impasses we cannot model the reuse of information in any meaningful way.6. We are grateful to an anonymous reviewer for this example.7. This provides the minimum distinction for our initial needs.8. Though there is a difficult step in deciding that the moving object really is the last unassigned object-since that requires setting aside any need to assign roles to, for example, connecting strings etc.9. At the moment we have to provide psCHENE with slightly different rulesets: providing rules with priorities would be more convenient.     

The structure of subject matter content and its instructional design implications

This paper discusses the analysis of subject matter structure for purposes of designing instruction. The underlying assumption is that subject matter structures provide an important basis for deciding how to sequence and synthesize the modules of a subject matter area. Four types of fundamental structures are briefly described and illustrated: the learning hierarchy, the procedural hierarchy, the taxonomy, and the model. Then a theoretical framework is presented for classifying types of subject mater content — both modules and structures. Finally, some implications of these content classifications are discussed. The classification of modules is hypothesized to be valuable for prescribing strategies for the presentation of single modules, and the classification of structures is hypothesized to be valuable for prescribing strategies for selecting, sequencing, synthesizing, and summarizing related modules. The need to take into account more than one kind of structure in the process of instructional design is emphasized.     

Anticipating the experience of higher education through computer simulation

In industry the advantages of realistic job preview have been much discussed, but lit-tle is currently done in British schools to prepare students for higher education. This article describes the development stages of a principled adventure game to simulate the experience of higher education. Playing this game is intended to provide realistic role preview for prospective students.The simulation has been developed out of an earlier board game derived, to some extent, from research findings. More recent research on student learning has provided the principles on which the new simulation game is being based. The game not only allows students to try out different study strategies, it also provides advice tailored to the specific strategies used by the individual stu-dent in interacting with the computer. This simulation can be seen as a simple expert system providing a form of intelligent tutoring.The architecture of the computer simulation is described, together with the strategies used to ensure that the game, and the advice provided, are both controlled by principles derived from the research on student learning. Illustrations are used to indicate how a student would experience the interactions with the computer, and how the rules produce tailored advice.     

Solving structured geometric tasks on the computer: The role of feedback in generating strategies

This paper describes a year-long study of the way a group of six 12-year-old children went about solving a special class of geometric problems, using a computer and a limited set of Logo programming tools. We examined children's solution strategies from the perspective of whether the strategies led to insights about the underlying mathematical relations. It was found that the feedback aspect of the computer graphics screen encouraged solution strategies that were qualitative and driven by visual data, rather than being based on explicit or implicit relations. These visually based strategies did not lead to the kind of mathematization of problem-situations that we as mathematics educators would like to see and, in fact, seemed to be a barrier to the development of higher levels of geometric thinking.     

Exploring the Concept of ‘Habitus’ with Preservice Teachers Through the Use of Popular School Films

The thesis of this paper is that it is a productive venture to introduce preservice students to social theories that are typically not a part of teacher preparation programs. Examples of these theories are those associated with terms such as habitus, the carnivalesque, power / knowledge, seduction, detournement, the spectacle,la perruque, (the wig), and the art of making do,as well as others. In this paper, I describe a project that involved exploring the theory of habitus to problematize the tendency of preservice students to not think in terms of relations between what goes on in the classroom and what goes on in society. I introduced habitus by having preservice students read selected print materials and by having them view, analyze, and respond in writing to popular school films. Students also analyzed their experiences in classrooms in terms of habitus, making a connection between theory and practice.     

Critical incidents and critical requirements in mentoring

Many traditional faculty now find themselves working with nontraditional students. New faculty models such as mentoring have emerged in response to the new student. The purpose of this study was to examine the mentoring role at Empire State College, State University of New York, on the basis of mentors' behavior responses to mentor-defined problems. The Critical Incident Technique was the method used to elicit reported and recalled incidents which either facilitated or impeded mentoring. Significant problems cited in the findings included communications gap in mentor/student relationship and the student's incompletion of academic work. Typical corresponding responses to such problems included providing support, demythologizing the learning process, setting behavior limits, and assessing and reassessing student performance. On the other hand, the critical requirements which were inductively derived from the critical incidents, as well as the practical implications which were gleaned from the study, revealed a definite extension of the traditional faculty role.The original document from which this article was adapted, including an extensive bibliography is on file with University of Microfilms International, Ann Arbor Michigan, 48108.     

The Effects of Storytelling and Story Reading on the Oral Language Complexity and Story Comprehension of Young Children

What began as a case study of intergenerational initiatives in university-based early childhood programs evolved into a comparative study of two different program implementation processes. Despite operating with the same goals, university partners, and resources, two early childhood centers pursued fundamentally different strategies for launching their intergenerational programs. One site followed what we call an explicit intervention with a set timeline and series of planned steps for finding, placing, and involving seniors in classroom activities. The other pursued what we call an emergent (or organic) strategy with no predetermined plan for finding senior volunteers and integrating them into classroom activities. Drawing on data collected from interviews with program staff and parents, and observations of intergenerational activities, this study serves to describe, compare, and contrast these alternative program initiation strategies. Both models are effective, but represent different approaches to valuing the contributions of older adults in the lives of young children.     

Learning group isomorphism: A crossroads of many concepts

This article is concerned with how undergraduate students in their first abstract algebra course learn the concept of group isomorphism. To probe the students' thinking, we interviewed them while they were working on tasks involving various aspects of isomorphism. Here are some of the observations that emerged from analysis of the interviews. First, students show a strong need for canonical, unique, step-by-step procedures and tend to get stuck of having to deal with some degrees of freedom in their choices. Second, students exhibit various degrees of personification and localization in their language, as in I can find a function that takes every element of G to every element of G vs. there exists a function from G to G. Third, when having to deal with a list of properties, students choose first the properties they perceive as simpler; however, it turns out that their choice depends on the type of the task and the type of complexity involved. That is, in tasks involving groups in general, students mostly prefer to work with properties which aresyntactically simple, whereas in tasks involving specific groups, students prefer properties which arecomputationally simpler.     

State Testing and Inquiry-Based Science: Are They Complementary or Competing Reforms?

The effect of district strategies for improving high-stakes test scores on science teachers practice is explored in case studies of six middle schools in six Massachusetts districts. At each school, science teachers, curriculum coordinators, principals, and superintendents shared their strategies for raising scores, their attitudes towards the test, the changes that they were implementing in their curriculum and pedagogical approaches, and the effects that the test was having on staff and on students. Results from these case studies suggest that districts chose markedly different strategies for raising scores on high stakes tests, and that the approaches taken by districts influenced the nature of pedagogical and curriculum changes in the classroom. District strategies for raising scores that were complementary to the districts prior vision of science reform tended to cause less teacher resentment towards the test than strategies that departed from previously adopted goals. Differing effects on teachers in socio-economically advantaged, middle, and challenged districts are discussed.     

Language factor: Does it affect children's performance on word problems?

48 children from primary 4 in private and public schools (24 from each) were asked to solve 10 arithmetic word problems (involving more or less as the cue word) presented in English and in their native language. Retrospective clinical interviews were also conducted to find out how each child analyzed the meaning of each problem, before deciding which operation to use to solve it. The results revealed that both public and private school children performed better both in skills and in strategies when problems were presented in their native language than when presented in English, but only public school had the result to be significant (P<.025). Also data obtained from the interviews are in accord with psycholinguistic theories concerning the polarized comparative pair of less and more.     

A two-dimensional analysis of student ratings of instruction

Student ratings of instruction were analyzed in terms of two global factors. One factor, which includes items on advanced planning, presentation clarity, and increased student knowledge, was named pedagogical skill. The other factor taps information about class discussion, grading, and the availability of help and was named rapport. Ratings on the skill factor did not covary with class size or the leniency of the instructor's grading but did correlate with a reasonable external criterion of student learning. Ratings of rapport correlated inversely with class size and directly with average class grade and showed only a weak relationship to the external criterion of student learning. The skill factor showed more interclass stability than the rapport factor. Previous research studies which have examined the reliability and validity of instructional ratings and their relationship to student grades and class size have reported inconsistent findings. These inconsistencies appear to result from an inappropriate unidimensional analysis of ratings which should be examined in terms of two of more separate attitude dimensions.     

Equity issues in local resourcing of education: Community financing of primary schools in Bhutan

Community financing is an important source of supplementary funds for education, particularly where governments are unable to meet all the needs of their peoples. While this is widely recognised, little empirical research has been conducted on the topic. This paper analyses patterns in Bhutan. It observes that until the 1990s few resources for education were provided by communities, but that the scale of financing has increased during the present decade. The paper notes that although communities have in general responded positively to government calls for local inputs, local resourcing has some problematic aspects. The paper focuses particularly on issues of regional, rural/urban and socio-economic equity, and shows how discussion of Bhutanese experiences contributes to the international literature.

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Zusammenfassung Finanzierungen über die Gemeinde sind eine wichtige Quelle der Bezuschussung von Bildung, besonders dort, wo Regierungen nicht in der Lage sind, den Bedürfnissen der Bevölkerung gerecht zu werden. Obwohl dies weitreichend bekannt ist, gibt es kaum empirische Studien zu diesem Thema. Dieser Artikel befaßt sich mit der Situation in Bhutan. Es wird festgestellt, daß die Gemeinden bis zu den 90ern kaum Gelder für die Bildung zur Verfügung stellten, daß aber der Rahmen der Finanzierung in diesem Jahrzehnt gestiegen ist. Der Autor beschreibt, daß trotz einer allgemein positiven Antwort seitens der Gemeinden auf Forderungen der Regierung nach lokalen Finanzbeiträgen, Probleme hinsichtlich lokaler Finanzierungen bestehen. Insbesondere befaßt sich der Artikel mit Themen über regionale, ländliche und städtische und sozialökonomische Gleichheit und zeigt, wie die Diskussion über die Erfahrungen in Bhutan zur internationalen Literatur beiträgt.

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Resumen La financiación a través de la comunidad es una fuente importante de recursos adicionales para la educación, particularmente allí donde los gobiernos son incapaces de satisfacer todas las necesidades de sus habitantes. Si bien este es un hecho ampliamente conocido, existen muy pocos estudios empíricos sobre este tema. El trabajo analiza los modelos existentes en Bhután y observa que hasta los años noventa, eran pocos los recursos financieros provistos por las comunidades, mientras que durante la década actual han aumentado estos niveles de financiación. El estudio observa que, a pesar de que las comunidades, en general, han respondido de forma positiva a las llamadas del gobierno a realizar inversiones locales, la creación de recursos locales tiene algunos aspectos problemáticos. El trabajo se concentra particularmente en problemas de equidad regional, rural/urbana y socioeconómica, demostrando cómo la discusión sobre experiencias bhutanesas presta su aporte a la literatura internacional.

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Résumé Le financement communautaire représente une source importante de fonds supplémentaires pour l'éducation, en particulier quand le gouvernement ne peut répondre à tous les besoins de la population. Bien que ce fait soit largement reconnu, il n'existe que peu de recherche empirique sur le sujet. Cet article analyse différents modèles existant au Bhoutan. Il constate tout d'abord que jusque dans les années 90, les communautés ne fournissaient qu'une faible partie des ressources de l'éducation, mais que cette forme de financement a augmenté au cours de la dernière décennie. Il relève également qu'en dépit de la réaction généralement positive de la part des communautés envers l'incitation du gouvernement à un financement local, ce modèle présente néanmoins des difficultés. L'article se concentre d'autre part sur les questions d'équitabilité entre régions, entre villes et provinces et entre niveaux socioéconomiques, et révèle que la discussion sur les expériences du Bhoutan contribue à enrichir la littérature internationale.

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La Croissance des depenses publiques d'education en Allemagne: 1829–1989

Résumé Le retournement de conjoncture du début des années 1970 s'est traduit par un renouveau des travaux relatifs aux cycles longs de type Kondratieff. Face à la fluctuation atypique de certaines variables (prix, production, etc ...), les acquis théoriques antérieurs semblaient avoir épuisé leur capacité explicative. Il devenait nécessaire d'énoncer et de vérifier des hypothèses nouvelles pour expliquer les traits originaux de la crise de structure qui se dessinait. Les résultats des travaux développés au sein du groupe de recherche en Histoire Quantitative et Théories du Long Terme de l'Université de Montpellier I répondent à cette nécessité. Ils introduisent une relation entre les dépenses engagées pour le développement des hommes (salaires, éducation, santé etc ...) et celles consacrées à la croissance matérielle.

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The downturn in the economic situation in the early 1970s gave rise to new work on long-term Kondratieff cycles. Given the atypical fluctuation in some variables (prices, production, etc.), previous theories appeared to have exhausted their ability to explain events. To explain the original features of the structural crisis that was developing, it has become necessary to put forward and test new hypotheses. The results of work carried out by the research group on Quantitative History and Long-Term Theories at the University of Montpellier I meet this requirement. They introduce a relationship between expenditure on human development (wages, education, health, etc.) and that devoted to material growth.

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Zusammenfassung Die Verschlechterung der wirtschaftlichen Situation in den frühen 70ern gab der Arbeit an langfristigen Kontratieff — Zyklen Aufschwung. In Anbetracht der atypischen Fluktuation einiger Variablen (Preise, Produktion, usw.) schienen vorangegangene Theorien die Ereignisse nicht mehr erklären zu können. Um die Ursachen der sich entwickelnden strukturellen Krise erklären zu können wurde es notwendig, neue Hypothesen aufzustellen und auszuprobieren. Die Ergebnisse der von der Forschungsgruppe über Quantitative Geschichte und Langzeittheorien an der Universität von Montpellier I durchgeführten Studien erfüllen diese Anforderungen. Sie stellen Ausgaben für die menschliche Entwicklung (Lohn, Bildung, Gesundheit usw.) und Ausgaben für materielles Wachstum in Relation.

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Resumen La degradación de la situación económica a comienzos de los a~nos setenta ha originado un nuevo trabajo sobre ciclos Kondratieff de largo plazo. Dada la fluctuación atípica de algunas variables (precios, producción, etc.), las teorías previas aparentemente habían agotado su capacidad de explicar los hechos. A efectos de explicar las características originales de la crisis estructural que se estaba desarrollando, surgió la necesidad de adelantar y comprobar nuevas hipótesis. Los resultados del trabajo realizado por el grupo de investigación de Historia Cuantitativa y Teorías de Largo Plazo de la Universidad de Montpellier I satisfacen estos requisitos. Ellos introducen una relación entre los gastos y esfuerzos destinados al desarrollo humano (salarios, educación, sanidad, etc.) y aquellos dedicados al crecimiento material.

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Connecting Teacher Beliefs to the Use of Children’s Literature in the Teaching of Mathematics

This article presents examples that illustrate how teachers use childrens literature in the teaching of mathematics. The examples are related to four curriculum ideologies that have influenced mathematics education in the USA for the last 75 years. It discusses why it is relevant to help teachers understand the ideological positions that influence their use of childrens literature during mathematics instruction, summarizes the four ideological positions, and presents results of a study of how teachers ideological positions relate to their use of childrens literature in the teaching of mathematics. The study examines two research questionsCan an instructional tool be developed that will highlight for teachers the different ways in which they and others use childrens literature to teach mathematics? and Can that instructional tool stimulate teacher discussion and reflection about their own beliefs and the ideological nature of the instructional environment in which they learned (as students) and teach (as teachers)? Study results indicate that both questions can be answered in the affirmative.     

Classroom control: Some cybernetic comments on the possible and the impossible

The application of basic cybernetic laws and information processing principles to the classroom situation suggests that traditional and modern teaching methods, regarded as control systems, are equivalent in terms of efficiency. As control structures, they embody different principles and are not decomposable. Examination of these principles reveals that the two methods are radically incompatible, in the sense that techniques developed in the one cannot be transferred to the other without dislocation of the system as a whole. Attempts to modernize the traditional method, or to formalize the modern method are ill-conceived. Such mixed methods violate basic laws of information and control, and cannot work. It is suggested that many of the problems underlying the Great Education Debate are a consequence of the impossible state of affairs created by the widespread introduction of mixed methods.     

School effectiveness and effectiveness indicators: Parents', students', teachers', and principals' perspectives

The purpose of this study was to examine perceptions of school effectiveness among parents, students, teachers and principals, and differences in their perceptions across school levels (primary vs. secondary) and types (religious state vs. non-religious state). Finally, the results were compared with school effectiveness indicators in the literature. A sample of all categories of subject in eight Israeli schools were interviewed (N=64). Analysis reveals that parents stressed school outputs, teachers stressed their skills and teaching processes, students emphasized both inputs and outcomes, and principals chiefly inputs. Religious schools gave more weight than others to values. These findings are broadly in line with the literature, but any comprehensive analysis of school effectiveness demands reference to all aspects of the concept.

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Zusammenfassung Ziel dieser Studie war eine Untersuchung darüber, für wie effektiv Eltern, Schüler, Lehrer und Direktoren die Schule beurteilen und wie unterschiedlich diese Wahrnehmungen auf den verschiedenen Schulebenen und -arten sind (Primarstufe und Sekundarstufe, religiös und nicht-religiös). Danach wurden die Ergebnisse mit Indikatoren über Schuleffektivität in der Literatur verglichen. Man führte Interviews mit den Zielgruppen in acht israelischen Schulen durch (N=64). Die Analysen zeigten, daß Eltern am meisten Wert auf Schulergebnisse legten, Lehrer auf ihre Fähigkeiten und Lehrprozesse, Schüler empfanden Lernen und Ergebnisse als gleich wichtig und Direktoren interessierte hauptsächlich das Lernen. Religiöse Schulen legten mehr Gewicht auf Wertvorstellungen als andere. Diese Ergebnisse stehen im allgemeinen mit der Literatur in Einklang, aber jede umfassende Analyse der Schuleffektivität erfordert die Berücksichtigung aller Aspekte des Konzepts.

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Resumen El propósito de este estudio residía en examinar las percepciones referentes a la eficacia de la escuela entre padres, estudiantes, docentes y directores, y las diferencias en sus percepciones a través de los diferentes niveles (primario vs. secundario) y tipos de escuelas (religiosas vs. laicas). Finalmente, los resultados se compararon con los indicadores de eficacia escolar establecidos en la literatura. Se ha interrogado a un grupo representativo de todas las categorias de sujetos en ocho escuelas israelíes (N=64). Los análisis revelan que los padres ponían énfasis en los rendimientos escolares, los maestros enfatizaban sus habilidades y procedimientos de enseñanza, los estudiantes enfatizaban tanto los esfuerzos como los resultados, y los directores, principalmente, los esfuerzos. Las escuelas religiosas, más que otras, adjudicaban una mayor importancia a los valores. Estos resultados coinciden de forma global con los datos que indica la literatura, pero todo análisis integrado de eficacia escolar exige la referencia a todos los aspectos del concepto.

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Résumé Le but de cette étude était d'appréhender comment parents, élèves, enseignants et directeurs d'école perçoivent l'efficacité scolaire, et si cette appréciation est différente selon le niveau scolaire (primaire ou secondaire) et le type d'école (statut religieux ou laïque). En dernier lieu, les résultats ont été comparés avec les indicateurs de l'efficacité scolaire relevés dans la littérature. Un échantillon de chaque groupe de sujets de huit écoles israéliennes a été soumis à des entretiens. L'analyse révèle que les parents font valoir le rendement scolaire, les enseignants s'attachent à leurs compétences et leurs méthodes pédagogiques, les élèves soulignent à la fois le contenu des programmes et les résultats scolaires, et les directeurs d'établissement se concentrent en premier lieu sur les contenus pédagogiques. Les écoles religieuses quant à elles donnent davantage de poids aux valeurs. Ces résultats correspondent d'une façon générale à ceux de la littérature, mais toute analyse complète sur l'efficacité scolaire doit couvrir tous les aspects du concept.

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The relationship between attributes of a children's radio program and its appeal to listeners

An approach was developed to investigate the link between attributes of a children's radio program and children's judgments of appeal. Program tapes were divided into 28 segments and were rated for the presence of 30 attributes. Through multidimensional scaling analysis, attributes were organized into six clusters of Superattributes on the basis of their co-occurrence across the 28 segments. Superattributes were labeled and assigned scores that reflected the degree to which each was present in the 28 segments. A sample of 42 children 8–12 years old listened to the test tapes and provided a written judgment of their interest in the program at each segment. Results revealed that the Superattributes Instruction, Intro Talk, and Jokes were negatively associated with children's interest, while Popular Music was positively correlated with interest. In planning programs and understanding the effects of radio on children, designers and researchers should pay special attention to those formats in radio programming that are familiar to children, especially popular music and instructional material.     

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's views on adult education

Although Rousseau describes inÉmile only his scheme for childhood education, he presents us in this work with some direct statements which can be applied to explain more fully the nature of adult education. The author surveys Rousseau's ideas on the role of the general will in adult educational philosophy, subject matter, methodology and negative education, as well as the relationships between the family, student, teacher, community and the state. He concludes that the modern Rousseau would not limit education to males and would recognize that the four Rousseauian periods of educational development — infancy, childhood, youngster, adolescence — is followed by a fifth: adulthood. Adult education is the logical continuation of the four previous phases. Throughout each phase education must permit intellectual and moral growth and always allow for creativity and diversity. Only then can adults become positive contributors to their society.

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Zusammenfassung Obwohl Rousseau inÉmile nur seine eigene Vorstellung der Kindererziehung beschreibt, präsentiert er uns in dieser Arbeit Standpunkte, die auch auf Erwachsenenbildung zutreffen. Der Autor beleuchtet Rousseaus Ideen zur Rolle des generellen Willens sowohl in der Philosophie der Erwachsenenbildung als auch in Inhalten, in Methodologien und in negativer Erziehung, sowie zu den Beziehungen zwischen Familie, Schüler, Lehrer, Gemeinde und Staat. Er schließt, daß der moderne Rousseau Bildung nicht nur auf die männliche Bevölkerung beschränken würde und zudem erkennen würde, daß zu den vier Rousseauschen Phasen der erzieherischen Entwicklung — Kleinkindalter, Kindheit, Heranwachsender und Jugendlicher eine fünfte Phase hinzukommen muß: das Erwachsenenalter. Erwachsenenbildung ist die logische Folge der vier vorangegangenen Phasen. In jeder Phase muß Erziehung intellektuelles und moralisches Wachstum beinhalten und Kreativität und Vielfalt berücksichtigen. Nur dann können Erwachsene Positives zu ihrer Gesellschaft beitragen.

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Resumen Si bien enÉmile, Rousseau describe solamente su idea de la educación de la niñez, en este trabajo nos confronta con algunas afirmaciones directas que pueden aplicarse para explicar con mayor profundidad la naturaleza de la educación de adultos. El autor investiga las ideas de Rousseau relativas a la voluntad general en la filosofía de educación de adultos, en el objetivo, en la metodología y en la educación negativa, así como las relaciones existentes entre la familia, el estudiante, el docente, la comunidad y el Estado. Su conclusión es que el moderno Rousseau no limitaría la educación a los varones y que reconocería que los cuatro períodos que Rousseau ha establecido para el desarrollo educacional: infancia, niñez, pubertad, adolescencia, deben completarse con una quinta etapa: la adultez. La educación del adulto es la continuación lógica de las cuatro fases previas. Desde su comienzo hasta su final, cada una de estas fases de la educación debe permitir el crecimiento intelectual y moral y ofrecer el espacio necesario para la creatividad y la diversidad. Son condiciones indispensables para que los adultos puedan prestar un aporte positivo a la sociedad a la que pertenecen.

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Résumé Bien que Rousseau ne décrive dans l'Émile que son modèle d'éducation de l'enfant, il fait dans cette oeuvre quelques déclarations directes que l'on peut utiliser pour définir plus amplement la nature de l'éducation des adultes. L'auteur présente les idées de Rousseau sur le rôle de la volonté générale dans la philosophie de l'éducation des adultes, les sujets, la méthodologie et l'éducation négative, de même que dans les relations entre famille, apprenant, enseignant, communauté et État. Il en déduit qu'un Rousseau contemporain ne limiterait pas l'éducation aux seuls garçons et reconnaîtrait que ses quatre périodes du développement pédagogique — première enfance, enfance, jeunesse et adolescence — sont suivies d'une cinquième, l'âge adulte. L'éducation des adultes est la continuation logique des quatre phases précédentes. À l'intérieur de chaque phase, l'éducation doit permettre une croissance intellectuelle et morale, et toujours laisser une part à la créativité et la diversité. Ce n'est qu'à cette condition que les adultes peuvent devenir des citoyens qui contribuent de façon positive à leur société.

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The American mixture of higher education in perspective: four dimensions

Several nations are currently considering privatization of parts of their higher education systems. This paper, mainly based on the American experience, examines privatizing public institutions as an alternative to establishing solely private institutions.Institutions are analyzed along four dimensions: (1) ownership (public or private); (2) control (external or internal); (3) financing (public or private funds); and (4) mechanisms for public financing (who controls fund distribution and how). There are varying mixtures along these four dimensions both within countries and around the world, with the American system exhibiting the widest range of combinations. Six categories are described, including four common in the U.S.: I. Independent private, where institutions are independent in ownership, in control, and in basic financing; II. Dependent private, independent in ownership and financing but dependent in control; III. Independent public, dependent in ownership but independent in control and substantially independent in financing; IV. Semi-independent public (state/guild type), dependent in ownership, mixed in control, and heavily dependent in financing (less common in the U.S., but typical of Italy and Latin America); V. Semi-independent public (state/trustee/guild type), where control is shared among state, academic guilds and lay boards of trustees but with mainly state-controlled financing; and VI. Dependent public, the model in the Communist nations.Kerr traces the historical path that led to the mixed American system and examines some of its positive consequences, which include institutional autonomy, diversity, and flexibility. Negative results include possible over-responsiveness to short-term pressures, as from the labor market or student preferences for courses of study, and from supporting business or industry.The author concludes that the American experience with privatized public institutions may serve as a model for those elsewhere who now seek greater institutional differentiation, autonomy, and flexibility within national systems of higher education.     

A qualitative review of study behaviour before and during the first year of engineering studies

A review of the study behaviour of first-year Engineering students was undertaken in order to investigate two sets of influencing factors. The first part of the study reviewed these students' selfreported retrospective study behaviour in the context of secondary school Science, while the second part focused on their approaches to the study of Applied Mechanics as a core undergraduate degree course. Utilising qualitative interview data as the source of evidence, the study highlights the following important conclusions: (1) some traditional first-year students embark on their studies as much at risk academically as their nontradition counterparts; (2) many first-year Engineering students encounter workload pressures which lead to their adopting increasingly strategic approaches to their studies in individual courses; (3) the complex, qualitatively different learning needs of these students make it exceedingly difficult to design teaching programmes which will appropriately address these learning needs. The study suggests that these conclusions cannot, in spite of these difficulties, simply be ignored in the hope that they will resolve themselves.