Stages de formation pédagogique des maitres a l' “Umanitaria”

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L'intégration après coup ou à la source

Sans résuméAllocution au Congrès sur l'Intégration des enseignements scientifiques, à Varna, 11–19 septembre 1968.-Quelques paragraphes proviennent d'un article publié enEnseignement 9 (1963), 28–44.     

Un exemple de transfert pédagogique: le catéchisme politique

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Protestant and Catholic Reformations involved an intense didactic and pastoral activity, and logically a huge catechetical production. Religious catechisms were the only books used as reading textbooks in the French “petites écoles”. The will to publish a secularised catechism progressively spread among the second generation of Enlightenment thinkers who published impious catechisms like Voltaire’s for example. But d’Alembert, among others, asked for the appropriation of sacred and popular form of religious instruction for Enlightenment purposes: scientific vulgarisation for example. Then, during the second half of the eighteenth century there occurred a secularisation of the catechism, often considered didactically as a knowledge summary. For example, in 1771 a Cours d’accouchement en forme de catéchisme by Tulinge, was published for midwives. And in 1773 the bishop Bexon wrote a Catéchisme d’agriculture for peasants. On the eve of the French Revolution, catechism had become a general way to expose knowledge in parallel with its Catholic use. The French revolutionaries used this teaching method to expose the new order and then, after the secularisation, a politicisation of the catechism occurred. During the French Revolution a transfer occurred from the Christian catechesis to the revolutionary education, which widely used political catechisms as official textbooks. Political catechisms – defined as summaries of main political doctrine principles and generally found in the form of questions and answers – were widely used in nineteenth-century France for political education. This article is based on a corpus of 815 political catechisms, published between the eve of the French Revolution and the First World War, mostly in France. This corpus of political books shares a deep formal homogeneity and a strong rhetorical stability. However, political catechisms had various uses: they were widely used for morals and civics teaching during the first half of the nineteenth century, and then turned to electoral catechisms from 1848 to the beginning of the twentieth century. The nineteenth century was the “century of the catechism” because this pedagogy was widely used, and not only for a religious purpose. We will focus on the pedagogic transfer that occurred from the 1750s to the French Revolution. For example, 1791 is the first peak with 47 books published that year. The reason for this production is a wide dissemination of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, subsequently of the Constitution and finally of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the latter two issued in 1791. Then, the French Clergy was deeply involved in such literature. In fact, a large number of clergymen, especially from the teaching orders (such as Doctrinaires for example) initially agreed with the revolutionary ideas and naturally used the catechism to spread the new underlying texts and ideas widely. The succession of questions and answers was considered the best teaching method to explain the new constitutional texts, especially for the youth. This teaching choice is backed by the will to provide people with a kind of political catechism, in parallel with the religious catechism. With 87 catechisms published during 1794 for 44 different titles, this is the most important peak of political catechism production. The first explanation for the peak is the fact that in 1794, on 28 January (9 pluviôse an II), the Convention Nationale launched a competition to stimulate schoolbook production, in order to replace books published during the Old Regime. This stimulated political catechism production. The transfer is obvious and was followed by a politicisation of the catechism. The political catechism is a major genre of nineteenth-century political literature with material conventions (a short, low-quality and cheap book) and obvious discursive conventions. The authors wished to write an elementary book used as a tool of politicisation and easy to spread among the lower classes. An educational transfer rather than a transfer of sanctity occurred during the French Revolution and political catechisms must be considered as a major political literary genre.     

Les probabilités à l'école élémentaire

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La spécialisation des professeurs en question: l’organisation pédagogique au prisme des contraintes matérielles (France, 1865–1941)

ABSTRACT

Worldwide, subject-matter teachers are commonplace in post-elementary schools. Teachers’ specialisation appears as a key characteristic of secondary schools as opposed to the polyvalence of primary school teachers. Historians have already studied the long process of teachers’ specialisation, which started, in France as in Prussia (for example), at the beginning of the nineteenth century and developed alongside secondary school modernisation. Those works have usually focused on professional aspects: the structuration of professional groups thanks to the unification of training and recruiting processes, the organisation of teachers within subject-matter associations etc. However, they have not paid much attention to the resistance opposed by other forms of pedagogical organisation, as if polyvalence were were just a backward anomaly, a backward anomaly, doomed to disappear.

This paper seeks to shed new light on this question using a comparison between the different forms of post-elementary schooling that existed at the same time in France between the last third of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth, when the slow growth of post-elementary schooling was mainly due to the success of subaltern institutions. In those institutions, dedicated to technical education, girls’ secondary education, or upper-lower classes’ education (“primaire supérieur”, “secondaire special”), different kinds of polyvalence or bivalence were experienced in the classrooms. At the same time, specialisation was triumphing in classical secondary education. Why, how and to what extent did specialisation eventually impose itself in these different institutions? To address this question, two types of material are used. On the one hand, the question is studied on a national level, analysing both the legislation and the controversies it arouses in pedagogical and professional reviews. On the other hand, these views and theories are confronted with a prosopography of post-elementary school teachers in one department, Eure-et-Loir, which offers several forms of post-elementary institutions. This question is addressed focusing on literary disciplines (philosophy, French, Latin, Greek, modern languages and history and geography). By narrowing the scope, the intellectual and cultural stakes of the various pedagogical organisations that were implemented or advocated may more easily be grasped.

The first part of the article examines the most common (though relatively untested) hypothesis: there was just one strategy for those who advocated the promotion of subaltern types of post-elementary schooling as part of a democratisation process, and this strategy was reproducing the model of the elite institution, secondary classical education, including its pedagogical organisation, starting with subject-matter teachers. The chronology of the changes, the content of the debates, as well as a comparative inquiry into teachers’ remuneration induces us to discard this hypothesis as insufficient if not irrelevant. For girls’ secondary education, a trade-off may be observed between equalisation (of salaries, rights etc.) and pedagogical alignment. For the other institutions, there was no lack of advocates for the specificity of the pedagogy or of the institution; however, specialisation was usually considered a process that could ameliorate the quality of teaching in these institutions without renouncing its specificity.

In fact, in the period under study, the louder advocates for less specialised teachers came from secondary classical education itself: the specialisation process as well as the fragmentation of the class schedule had pedagogic inconveniences, abundantly noticed and commented on by subject-matter teachers themselves. In the second part, these critics and the two main alternatives suggested by the teachers are examined. The first is linked with the Progressive Education movement (“Education nouvelle” in French). The École des Roches, a private institution, tested an original organisation that combined the tradition of the humanities with the modern characteristic of “Éducation nouvelle”: there was only one teacher for history, geography, French, Latin and Greek. The teacher was thus enabled to practise a pedagogy of interest, as advocated by Ovide Decroly. The second alternative was advocated by some modern language teachers: if modern language teachers could teach French as well as a modern language, this pedagogic organisation could give strong unity to the until then defective “modern” curriculum (without Latin).

The third part turns towards the effective organisation of post-elementary schools in Eure-et-Loir. To what extent were these alternative conceptions of pedagogical organisation implemented? The analysis of individual records of teachers suggests several results. First of all, in small institutions – be they classical secondary institutions like “collèges” or modern ones like “écoles primaires supérieures” – specialisation of services was a luxury that most teachers could not afford. Most of the time, they had to teach several subjects, even if they had been trained for just one. However, polyvalence was not used as an opportunity to make connections between the subjects. Class schedules rarely enabled teachers to use polyvalence as a way to teach several subjects to the same pupils. More often, polyvalence was used by the administration as an expedient that some teachers explicitly tried to escape, for example by asking for a move to a bigger institution.

This mundane reality of small institutions invites us to pay renewed attention to teacher training and its regulation during the same period. At the end of the nineteenth century, teachers’ specialisation had been inextricably linked with the modernisation of universities through the specialisation of the “licence de lettres” in 1880. When this model proved to be partially irrelevant for a significant proportion of post-elementary schools, how did universities react? Were universities fit for something other than training specialised teachers? The answer is yes. The curriculum organisation of the licence opened up several possibilities for training polyvalent teachers. This perspective was still looming at the end of the 1930s.

The curricula of the different post-elementary settings analysed in this article shared the same characteristics: they worked as “serial codes” not as “integrated codes”, to quote Basil Bernstein. Therefore the specialisation, bivalence or polyvalence of the teachers did not have much influence, in itself, on the degree of integration of the curriculum. From this perspective, specialisation could probably guarantee better teaching of the subject matters. However, polyvalent teachers were better suited to small schools than specialist ones. Considering demographic and geographic constraints, there was a clear trade-off between specialisation of teachers and separation of publics. In small cities, it was necessary either to mix the pupils to specialise the teachers, or to accept some kind of polyvalence to keep different types of students separated; the debate was still open during the 1930s. School massification, coeducation and the baby-boom era rapidly settled the matter for small cities after the Second World War, giving way to an effective specialisation of teachers. But the question remained open, until the end of the 1970s, for rural settings.     

Les hétérogénéités dans l'enseignement des mathématiques

Cet article examine la question du lien entre les hétérogénéités pouvant caractériser un système didactique et l'enseignement des mathématiques. Trois types d'hétérogénéités sont d'abord définies: 1) L'hétérogénéité exogène: traits a priori de nature non-didactique comme, par exemple, la catégorie socioprofessionnelle d'origine des élèves; 2) L'hétérogénéité péri-didactique: ensemble des caractéristiques liées aux acquisitions disciplinaires comme par exemple le niveau scolaire des élèves en mathématiques; 3) L'hétérogénéité didactique est définie comme une création du système didactique permettant l'ajustement des exigences fixées par le curriculum aux contraintes effectives d'un système didactique particulier (niveaux des élèves, temps, niveau de difficulté des connaissances en jeu ...). Sous ce modèle théorique, l'enseignement est envisagé comme un processus régulateur des hétérogénéités en vue d'une meilleure maîtrise des connaissances visées pour le plus grand nombre d'élèves. Un premier groupe de résultats permet de réaffirmer le caractère spécifique des approches didactiques: pour les mathématiques, l'hétérogénéité péri-didactique n'est pas liée à l'hétérogénéité exogène — ce qui n'est pas le cas pour l'enseignement de la langue. Un deuxième groupe de résultats montre que plus les progrès réalisés par élèves sont importants, plus l'hétérogénéité s'accroît; réciproquement, plus les progrès réalisés sont faibles plus l'hétérogénéité se réduit. Ainsi, le système didactique apparaît comme un système régulateur d'hétérogénéités: les connaissances s'y diffusent par déplacement des hétérogénéités initiales qu'il a lui-même générées (en les accroissant et en les réduisant selon le degré de difficulté initial des connaissances en jeu). Cette recherche a porté sur 112 élèves; 22 problèmes additifs (composition de deux transformations) ont été soumis aux élèves lors d'un pré-test, puis d'un post-test. Entre ces deux épreuves deux leçons ont été réalisées sur le calcul relationnel, dont les modalités d'organisation didactique étaient au libre choix des professeurs.This revised version was published online in September 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Les pièges de l'enseignement des mathématiques

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«Nouveaux» médias et innovation pédagogique: l'hypothèse d'un dispositif transitionnel

L'introduction des technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) dans les pratiques éducatives s'accompagne d'un questionnement foisonnant sur les effets attendus et potentiels de ces outils sur l'apprentissage et les relations pédagogiques entre apprenants et enseignants. C'est dans ce cadre que s'inscrit l'appel d'offres lancé en mai 1998 par le Comité National de Coordination de la Recherche en éducation (CNCRE, France), appel comprenant ces deux questions: 'Comment les technologies de l'information et de la communication sont-elles utilisées dans le système éducatif? Modifient-elles la nature, les contenus et les modalités des apprentissages, ainsi que les acquis, le rapport au savoir et les attitudes des élèves, des étudiants et des enseignants?' L'appel préconisait de répondre À ces questions en faisant une revue synthétique de la littérature internationale disponible sur ce champ. Cet article s'attache À présenter la manière dont notre équipe, retenue par cet appel d'offres, a traité de cette problématique générale. (Paulette Bernhard (Ecole de Bibliothéconomie et des Sciences de l'Information de Montréal, Québec); Patrick Bompard (Institut de l'Homme et de la Technologie, France); Hughes Choplin (Département Innovation Pédagogique, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Télecommunications, France); Nicole Cortesi-Grou (Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Télecommunications, France); Sonia Lefebvre (Université de Trois Rivières, Québec); Didier Paquelin (Université de Bordeaux III, France); Serge Pouts-Lajus (Observatoire des Technologies pour l'Education en Europe, Paris); Jean-FranÇois-Rouet (Université de Poitiers, France). New media and pedagogic innovation: the hypothesis for a transitional system. The introduction of information and communication technologies (ICT) into educational practices has been accompanied by much questioning about the expected effects and the potential of these tools with respect to teaching and training, and the pedagogic relationships between teachers and learners. It was within this framework that a call for offers was announced in May 1998 by the National Committee for Coordination of Research into Education (CNRE – France), a call which consisted of two questions: 'How is ICT used in the educational system?' and 'Does it modify the nature, the contents and the modes of training and education, as well as the acquisition, the rapport with knowledge and the attitudes of pupils, students and teachers?' The call recommended that the response to these questions should be made by making a synthesis of international literature available in the field. This article sets out to present the way in which our team, formed because of this call for offers, has dealt with this general problem. Neue Medien und pädagogische Innovation : die Hypothese von einem Uebergangssystem. Die Einführung der Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien (ICT) in der pädagogischen Praxis wird begleitet von vielen Fragen über erwartete und potentielle Auswirkungen auf die Bildung, und die pädagogische Beziehung zwischen Lehrern und Schülern. Sie bewegen sich im Rahmen eines Aufrufs vom Mai 1998 durch das 'Comité National de Coordination de la Recherche en Education' (CNCRE – Frankreich), der zwei Fragen beinhaltete : " Wie werden die neuen Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien im Bildungssystem eingesetzt ? " und " Verändern sie die Art, die Inhalte, und die Modalitäten der Bildung, die pädagogischen Errungenschaften, die Beziehung zu Wissen, die Einstellung der Schüler, Studenten, und Lehrkräfte ? " Zur Beantwortung der Fragen, empfahl der Aufruf eine zusammenfassende Ausarbeitung über die international verfügbare Literatur auf diesem Gebiet. Dieser Artikel präsentiert, wie unsere Arbeitsgruppe, ermuntert durch den Aufruf, diese allgemeine Problematik angegangen ist.     

Rencontre internationale d'experts de la recherche pédagogique,Atlantic City (USA), Février 1956

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L'enseignement mutuel à Genève ou l'histoire de l'‘échec’ d'une innovation pédagogique en contexte: L'école de Saint‐Gervais, 1815–1850

In the first half of the nineteenth century, the monitorial system was for some elites the pedagogical invention that could realize the project to provide education for all children of the popular classes. Despite this not being the main pedagogical method, its diffusion was large at first but after a few years it was gradually abandoned. To understand this pendulum movement, this paper tries to show the political, ideological, social and pedagogical involvements of the method. What was its role in providing education for popular classes? Which social and political projects sustained it? Which actors and factors supported it and then gave it up? What were its practices? What was the evolution of the method? From the viewpoint of social and cultural history, this paper aims to analyse and explain the process of this pedagogic innovation through the case of the monitorial system in Geneva from 1815 to 1850.     

Une approche plurilingue pour faciliter l’inclusion scolaire : engagement et dynamique pédagogique

A multilingual approach to facilitating inclusion: Educational commitment and dynamics – In the school context, the first steps in the process of learning a foreign language require commitment and motivation on the part of the learner, as well as a commitment from the teacher to include all students. This raises questions about the inclusiveness of education and the educational achievement of multilingual and/or immigrant students in predominantly monolingual classes. The author draws on a corpus of research to explore a number of parameters involved in the implementation of a multilingual and inclusive approach. She links the foundations of a multilingual approach to the institutional framework and the positions of the actors in the didactic relationship, as well as in their relationship to languages. The article then gives an overview of the characteristics of the metacognitive strategies employed by multilingual learners and, in conclusion, proposes some innovative methods to go beyond the monolingual principles in learning and foster exchanges that are both multicultural and multilingual.     

L’éducation en prison à la périphérie de l’éducation pour tous

International Review of Education - Prison education on the margins of education for all – Prison education is an issue which would benefit from a more active role of initiative on the part...