Football at the ‘End of the Line’: Economic Decline,Cross-Subsidies and Football League Membership in the NW Steel District of England

Sporting leagues are generally based on collectivist principles, as the members need one another to produce their product. For much of its existence, the Football League has functioned as a cartel, operating income-sharing arrangements and controlling its membership. In the period from 1959 to 1986, a limited number of clubs left the League through the re-election process, in modest recognition of geographical logic, as clubs from growth areas to the south typically replaced clubs from more traditional economic areas that were often over-represented in the Football League. Clubs are widely seen to be utility-maximisers seeking success. Success in a sporting league is defined in a precise and relativist way and this article focuses on two of the least successful clubs to have played in the Football League, Barrow AFC and Workington FC, whose failure to obtain repeated re-election in the 1970s removed the only Football League clubs in a distinct economic zone, the north-west coastal steel district. This article examines the re-election mechanism and the particular economic factors that affected these two clubs, ranging from the decline of their main local industry to changes in the levels of and responsibilities attaching to rising cross-subsidy payments in the Football League.     

On Bosworth Field or the Playing Fields of Eton and Rugby? Who Really Invented Modern Football?

In 1867 the Football Association was considering disbanding but was largely dissuaded from doing so by the progress the game was making in Sheffield. The football rules used there seemed much more appealing to teams and spectators alike and the game was beginning to be exploited commercially. This commercialism was resisted though by the local social elite who still had a fierce belief in amateurism and opposed the professionalisation of football. At the same time, in Lancashire, there existed a vigorous sporting culture surrounding pedestrianism, horse racing, boxing and cricket together with a well developed structure of sporting facilities. By the 1870s football, a game that had not previously been exploited commercially in Lancashire, was beginning to become popular and was rapidly professionalised. Nominal record linkage indicates that this development was essentially driven by schoolteachers, clerks, bookkeepers and accountants using their social and cultural capital rather than the transference of public school culture through returning public schoolboys. The formation of modern association football in Lancashire between 1830 and 1885 can then be seen to be effected though linear continuities in local popular culture and the emergence of a lower middle class rather than public school traditions and a civilising process.     

Manchester and the Emergence of an Association Football Culture, 1840–1880: An Alternative Viewpoint

This paper provides a critique of the article by Gary James and Dave Day on ‘The Emergence of an Association Football Culture in Manchester, 1840–1884', published in Sport in History. We suggest an alternative interpretation of Manchester's football history during this period, arguing that Association football was a minor form of football in a city largely dominated by the rugby code. Furthermore, by employing an artificial construct of Manchester the authors have produced the wrong answer to the wrong question. Rather than trying to prove that Manchester developed an important Association football culture, we suggest they ought to have addressed the question of why such a culture did not exist. The contribution to the development of Association football of three isolated ‘transitory’ clubs in a city as large as Manchester is certainly not ‘substantial’. Subsequently, James and Day also fail to exploit fully their evidence for early football in the Manchester area by omitting to relate this properly to the much wider ongoing debate surrounding the origins of football. Conversely, there is ample evidence that ‘substantial’ Association football developments actually occurred in East Lancashire, centred on Bolton, Blackburn and Darwen, developments that are scarcely noted in James and Day's account.     

Professional Football in Apartheid South Africa: Leisure,Consumption and Identity in the National Football League, 1959–1977

A growing body of academic and popular literature considers the history of South African football. These and existing publications pay little or no attention to the emergence of white professional football in apartheid South Africa. The National Football League (NFL) challenged the amateur game and introduced professional football to the country. During its 17-year existence, the NFL grew each season with large attendances until its demise in 1977. In addition, the NFL imported a range of international players, invited foreign teams and actively engaged in the political debates in South African sport at the time. The NFL was instrumental in popularising the game across the country for all South Africans. The NFL became the most popular sports entertainment of choice for South Africans during this period. Finally, the NFL actively engaged in a campaign of destroying rival non-racial anti-apartheid leagues while simultaneously co-opting less progressive organisations.     

Die Drei-Punkte-Regel in der deutschen 1. Fußballbundesliga und der Anteil unentschiedener Spiele

Dilger and Geyer (2007) analysed the impact of introducing the three-point rule in 1995/1996 on the results in the German premier soccer league (1. Fußballbundesliga). The authors argue that this change, among others, would lead to a reduction in the number of draws as the possibility to gain 3 points instead of 2 would cause a higher incentive for winning. Examining the entire n=6194 games in the German premier soccer league 10 years before and after the rule change, respectively, they found a significant difference for this specific period (p<0.01). This finding is interpreted as evidence for the impact of the three-point rule. We contradict this questionable interpretation by Dilger and Geyer (2007). In our reply we show that the implementation of the three-point rule has no (practically relevant) impact on the proportion of draws. For this purpose, all of the n=13,406 matches since 1963/1964 were included in the analysis. The results indicate fluctuations in the percentage of draws during 44 years of existence of the German premier soccer league independently of the implementation of the three-point rule. In light of this, an impact of the three-point rule on the proportion of draws cannot be identified at all.     

Scoring on and off the field?: The impact of Australia's inclusion in the Asian Football Confederation

The case follows Australia's move from the Oceania Football Federation (OFC) to the Asian Football Confederation (AFC). The case explores the impact of Australia's inclusion on other AFC member nations and highlights that Australia's relative success in the AFC may not be perceived as positive by all stakeholders within the AFC. The case considers the effect of Australia's inclusion in the AFC on the AFC in general, and also on both the sport of soccer in Australia, and the broader Australian economy.     

‘Playing Dead’ and Killing Off Amateurism: Bribery Scandals,Illegal Player Payments,Rule Expunging,and the Victorian Football League’s Authorization of Professionalism in 1911

Abstract

Australian football is an indigenous game codified in 1859. In Melbourne, the code’s birthplace, the game remained officially committed to the amateur ideal for over a half-century. Illegal player payments nonetheless became increasingly commonplace. Moreover, periodically rumours swirled of champion footballers taking bribes to ‘play dead’. By the early 1900s, the code’s leading competition, the Victorian Football League (VFL), was derided with the ‘shamateurism’ label. Following a sensational match-fixing investigation that resulted in two players receiving five-year bans, in 1911 the VFL expunged its rule prohibiting player payments. Was the timing merely coincidental or was the League’s historic switch to professionalism a deliberate countermeasure to redirect press attention, renew public confidence, and restore the game’s integrity? By consulting the League’s official records and contemporary press articles, this work examines the overlooked yet discernible linkages between rising match-fixing allegations and the VFL’s decision to eschew amateurism and embrace professionalism. It argues that Australian football offers an instructive historical perspective of a sporting body tackling mounting concerns over corruption, taking back the ascendency by amending its rules to better govern over dishonest players and duplicitous club officials, thereby growing its popularity and restoring public perception of its integrity in the process.     

The Singapore Football League, 1904–1941: Towards the Institutionalization of Football in the Colonial Port City of Singapore

Abstract

The Singapore Football Association (SFA) was founded in 1892. In 1904, the YMCA initiated the first football league with 12 teams from military and European clubs and School Old Boys’ teams. The first phase from 1904 to 1913 was restricted to European and Eurasian only. The military teams won six out of the nine tournaments. The second phase of the league began in 1917 and from 1921 to 1941. The Straits Chinese Football Association (SCFA) took part in the league and the rejuvenated SFA included a representative from the SCFA. The Singapore Football League started with two divisions 1921 and participating teams from the SCFA in the same year and the Malaya Football Association (MFA) in 1924. The SCFA won the league for the first time in 1925 and subsequently in 1930, 1937, and 1938. In 1929, the SFA was renamed the Singapore Amateur Football Association (SAFA). The MFA won the League for the first time in 1931, and the first local team to win three years in succession from 1931 to 1933. From 1931 to 1941 the local teams won seven league titles out of 11. By 1940 the League grew with 44 teams in three divisions.     

Football in Inter-war Northern Ireland: Ballymena Football and Athletic Club Limited – Religious and Political Exclusivity or Civic Inclusivity?

Historians have almost universally seen association football in the north of Ireland as a divisive influence. The impacts of sectarian and political tensions on the game have been stressed, alongside the extent to which this sport supposedly feeds into existing divisions. Much of the work carried out has concentrated on the last four decades, though even studies outside this period of widespread civil disorder have highlighted these problems. This paper uses the surviving records of the Ballymena Football and Athletic Club, the local press, census returns and other records to consider aspects of one particular Northern Irish club in the 1920s and 1930s. This short consideration of the players, supporters and shareholders suggests that at least in this case football was successful in bringing together and developing cooperation between men of widely differing political and religious views. While the club was a not a financial success, it was a social and sporting one. The evidence available suggests there was little exhibition of sectarian tension at any level.

Le football en Irlande du Nord dans l'entre-deux-guerres: Ballymena Football and Athletic Club Limited - exclusivité religieuse et politique ou intégration civique

Les historiens ont presque universellement perçu le football en Irlande du Nord sous l'angle d'une influence séparative. L'impact des tensions sectaires et politiques sur le jeu a été souligné, en même temps que la manière dont ce sport est censée s'intégrer dans des divisions existantes. La plupart des travaux effectués se sont concentrés sur les quatre dernières décennies, bien que même les études sur d'autres périodes que celle des troubles civiles aient mis en évidence ces problèmes. Cet article utilise les archives du Ballymena Football and Athletic Club qui ont survécu, la presse locale, des rapports de recensement et d'autres rapports pour reconsidérer les dimensions d'un club particulier d'Irlande du Nord dans les années 1920 et 1930. Ce bref regard sur les joueurs, les supporters et les actionnaires suggère qu'au moins dans ce cas, le football est parvenu à réconcilier et développer la coopération entre des hommes d'origines politiques et religieuses largement différentes. Si le club ne fut pas un succès économique, il en fut un sur le plan social et sportif. Les sources disponibles suggèrent qu'il y a eu peu d'affichage de tensions communautaires à quelque niveau que ce soit.

El fútbol en la Irlanda del Norte de entreguerras. Ballymena Football and Athletic Club Limited: segregación religiosa y política o integración cívica

Casi todos los historiadores han considerado el fútbol en Irlanda del Norte como una influencia segregadora. Se ha subrayado el impacto sobre este deporte de las tensiones sectarias y políticas, así como el grado en que el fútbol se supone que ha alimentado las divisiones existentes. Gran parte de la investigación desarrollada se ha centrado en las últimas cuatro décadas, aunque otros estudios sobre periodos anteriores a esta época de desórdenes civiles generalizados han recalcado estos mismos problemas. El presente artículo utiliza los archivos conservados del Ballymena Football and Athletic Club, la prensa local, registros del censo y otros documentos para analizar aspectos de un club norirlandés en concreto en los años 20 y 30 del siglo XX. Este breve estudio de los jugadores, los seguidores y los accionistas sugiere que por lo menos en este caso el fútbol consiguió integrar y estimular la cooperación entre hombres con creencias políticas y religiosas muy diversas. Si bien el club no constituyó un éxito económico, sí lo fue desde el punto de vista social y deportivo. La información disponible indica que en su seno hubo pocas manifestaciones de tensiones sectarias de cualquier tipo.

Fußball in Nordirland zwischen den Weltkriegen: Ballymena Football and Athletic Club Limited – religiöse und politische Exklusivität oder bürgerliches Mitwirken

Historiker haben Fußball in Nordirland fast übereinstimmend als trennenden Einfluss wahrgenommen. Neben dem Umfang, in dem sich dieser Sport vermutlich auf die bereits vorhandene Spaltung auswirkt, wurde das Einwirken von konfessionsgebundenen und politischen Spannungen auf das Spiel untersucht. Ein großer Teil der durchgeführten Forschung konzentrierte sich auf die letzten vier Jahrzehnte, obwohl auch Studien außerhalb dieser Periode des weitverbreiteten bürgerlichen Widerstands diese Probleme hervorgehoben haben. Diese Abhandlung verwendet noch existierende Aufzeichnungen des Ballymena Football and Athletic Clubs, der lokalen Presse, Volkszählungsberichte und weitere Aufzeichnungen, um die Erscheinung eines ausgewählten nordirischen Klubs in den 1920er und 1930er Jahren nachzuvollziehen. Diese kurze Betrachtung der Spieler, Unterstützer und Anteilseigner lässt vermuten, dass Fußball, zumindest in diesem Fall, erfolgreich darin war, Männer mit äußerst unterschiedlichen politischen und religiösen Ansichten zusammenzubringen und ihre Kooperation zu fördern. Während der Klub kein finanzieller Erfolg war, so war er es doch in sozialer und sportlicher Hinsicht. Das verfügbare Material deutet darauf hin, dass konfessionelle Spannungen auf den verschiedenen Ebenen kaum sichtbar wurden.