Women's Participation in Sport in Portugal during the New State Regime

The period of Portuguese history known as the New State (1930–1974) was marked by a strong ideology that had a great impact upon gender relations and on women's status and their participation in sport. During this period a variety of arguments grounded in aesthetics, morals, health and women's biology were put forward not only to encourage women's involvement in sport but also to control the kinds of sports in which women could be involved, as well as the intensity of sports practice. In spite of the state's attempt to control women's involvement in sport, there were women who resisted this control by pursuing sport, thus showing the existence of spaces within the sports figuration that were used to express ideas different from those disseminated by the regime. In this context the campaign for women's sport, which developed in the 1930s, was important. This paper seeks to examine women's participation in sport and in particular in all-female sports clubs and the controversies that surrounded the campaign for women's sport and the creation of such clubs.     

德国体育俱乐部建制探析

采用文献综述法和调查访问法,对德国体育俱乐部的起源与发展进行回顾,通过大量统计数据对德国体育俱乐部的现状和面临的问题进行分析和讨论,以期全面地介绍德国的体育俱乐部体制并研究其与竞技体育、群众体育和学校体育的关系,为我国的体育发展尤其是全民健身的发展提供参考和借鉴。     

Historiography,Cultures of Remembrance and Tradition in German Sport

Erinnerungskultur (culture of remembrance) is a widely discussed notion in German historiography. First, the meaning of Erinnerungskultur, including the specific role of academic historiography of sport, is described and explained with respect to sport and sport historiography. One main objective is to reveal the diversity of cultures of sport history and the specific obligations of academic historiography. Second, the actors of sport memories and/or Traditionspflege (heritage) are characterised, and, third, some controversial and perennial debates that permeate German sports history are explained and interpreted, especially that of Carl Diem, internationally known as ‘Mister Olympics’ of 1936. All in all, the paper provides an overview of the mainstreams, cultures and politics of history in Germany with respect to sport.     

Opportunistic,Parasitic, Strategic,Symbiotic: Entrepreneurship and the Business of Sport

Abstract

Stephen Hardy’s tripartite sports product (1986), as subsequently refined by George Sage (2004) and recently reconfigured by Wray Vamplew (2018), remains the starting point for any study of entrepreneurship in and around sport. Recent work in business history, especially Daniel Wadhwani and Christina Lubinski’s advocacy of ‘new entrepreneurial history’ (2017), also has implications for sports historians. These perspectives are crucial for identifying and exploring some key characteristics of entrepreneurship, here defined as an essentially creative process during which opportunities are enacted and developed rather than discovered and exploited. Emphasis is placed on innovation and on how new combinations are effected. A provisional taxonomy of new combinations is developed and three principal categories – parasitic, strategic, and symbiotic – are suggested, each relating to the tripartite sports product in a different way. These abstract formulations are illustrated by examples drawn mainly form the business history of late-nineteenth and early twentieth-century sport.     

德国和原西德体育电视媒体发展特点分析

体育是德国电视媒体发展主要推动力,体育电视媒体的发展在经历了政府垄断和自治公立体制的两个历史阶段之后,形成了适应现代市场竞争需求的双轨制发展模式。德国体育电视媒体以电视广播和体育两大文化领域发展为基础,与德国的政治体制一脉相承,体现了高度自治、竞争制衡、公益福利性的特点,利用文献分析法,通过对于德国体育电视历史发展和现状的相关研究文献和资料进行理论分析,并以最具代表性的足球为例进行阐述。揭示了德国体育电视媒体社会化发展的特征。     

The Decline of Mass Sport Provision in the German Democratic Republic

The German Democratic Republic's sports system, often termed a ‘sports miracle’, produced outstanding results in international sport. Drug abuse aside, this system appeared to be based on a robust and symbiotic relationship with mass sport, which was amply provided for by the state. Using unpublished letters sent by GDR citizens to the state authorities drawn from the Federal Archive in Berlin, this article sheds light on the miserable state of mass sport, particularly in the last decade of the state's existence. Although great numbers of East Germans took part in some form of sport or the other, elite sport – and the privileged facilities and equipment that went with it – was effectively hermetically sealed off from wider society. The impressive upward trajectory of GDR sport – in terms of international titles and Olympic medals won – went hand in hand with the decline in standards of facilities and availability of equipment for the masses.     

体育口述史研究基本问题探析

体育口述史是运动“生命”或体育事件的诉说,能够丰富体育史的研究,激活体育学术全新的活力,在访谈中完成思想、观点的传递和史料的挖掘。体育口述史要注重访谈者、受访者和口述资料三者的关系,厘清体育回忆录、访谈等与体育口述史的区别,正视精英体育人物和群众体育口述史的不同价值与意义。研究认为:体育口述史研究要注重其“史”学特性,最大的独特性是运动场景的再现;体育口述史注重“对话式”的访谈,采访者必须历史在场;体育口述史作为一种方法的价值在于弥补、纠偏、发掘史料,有其严格的操作过程,其理论与实践研究尚处于起步阶段,需要一批具有史学功底的学者介入,从时空维度还原口述者的运动情境和体育事件现场。     

城乡结合部农村社区体育人文素质的提高探究

休育人文素质是科学素质的基础之一,是创新能力的基础。城乡结合部农村社区是我国步入城市化发展的一个新阶段,为实现城乡协调发展、全面构建小康社会而提出建设社会主义新农村。本文采用文献资料法,探究目前农村社区体育人文素质存在的健身意识、体育场地缺乏、体育活动意识淡薄等现象,提出要以社会主义新农村建设为契机,构建农村社区与体育人文素质两者互动发展的思路和对策。     

London is Just Around the Corner: Belgium,Britain and Sport

Answering the legitimate call for a more transnational approach to the history of sport in Europe, we seize upon the 2012 Olympic Games as an opportunity to look back on Belgo-British contacts in sport since the Middle Ages. Contextualising this history within the wider Belgo-British political, economic and cultural contacts is, indeed, much more revealing than recounting a superficial story about the three medals the Belgian Olympic delegation actually obtained in London. We illustrate that transnational flows and contacts – crucial to the shaping and diffusion of sport – are not always reflected at the level of the Olympic Games. The cases of cycle racing and soccer demonstrate the divergent adoption and adaptation processes of specific sporting disciplines in Belgium and Britain. At the end of the paper, we also reflect on David Cameron's competitive sport policy in primary education, and raise the question whether the dissipation of public funds for elite sport – to the detriment of ‘Sport for All’ – is still defendable in times of government budgetary scarcity.     

The Munich Olympics 1972: Its Impact on the Relationship Between State,Sports and Anti-Doping Policy in West Germany

This article about doping and anti-doping measures and policy in West Germany in the context of the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich is part of a research project about ‘Doping and Anti-Doping in West-Germany’, supported by the German Government. The intention of this paper is to describe, analyse and discuss the process of changing relationships between state (including various governing sports bodies) and sport (including the German sport associations and federations) in West Germany in the context of the Munich Olympics, and how doping and anti-doping was dealt with in national and international high-level sports. The paper is based on relevant archives and documents from governmental and sports organizations, as well as on the current German and international state-of-the-art of doping (and anti-doping) research.     

德国体育俱乐部体制与竞技体育关系的研究

采用文献综述法和调查访问法,对原东德、原西德和德国统一后的竞技体育概况、目前德国的竞技体育体制与体育俱乐部的关系及其优缺点做了介绍和研究,通过实例分析,说明德国的竞技体育体制建立在俱乐部体制的基础之上,俱乐部体制是德国竞技体育可持续发展,尤其是群众基础较好的项目如足球和冰雪项目保持高水平的基础和保证。     

Sport,women, and leadership: Results of a project on executives in German sports organizations

Abstract

Throughout the world, women are a small minority within the governing bodies of organized sport. This paper presents the results of three empirical studies that have been undertaken within a German research project. The representative survey of all male and female executives in German sports federations (N=697) included questions concerning their socio-demography, their careers as executive members of sports organizations, as well as their careers in sport and their chosen occupation. The survey reveals significant gender differences in terms of, for example, age, family situation, responsibilities in the executive committees, duration of office, and career barriers. Furthermore, we conducted 23 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with women in leadership positions to explore the women's individual perspectives. The aim of a second interview study (“drop-out” study) was to identify barriers in the voluntary careers of seven male and nine female leaders who left office prematurely (i.e. earlier than they had originally planned). These informants can be seen as experts who have an excellent insight into their organizations and who have also experienced barriers that caused them to “drop out”. The respondents’ statements showed similarities with regard to socio-economic background but considerable differences in terms of gender-specific experiences, attitudes, and evaluations. The demands placed on the sports leaders were much more in line with the biographies of the men interviewed than with the personal circumstances of the women.     

我国体育改革与发展的创新保障

特殊历史条件下形成的体育理论已经不适应我国现代体育发展,需要进行理论、体制和文化的创新.体育理论的创新可为体育改革与发展扫清理论障碍;而通过制度创新可以为体育进一步发展"减负"与"护航"提供外在条件;文化创新通过古今中外体育文化的选择与融通,可以为我国体育改革与发展提供持续动力.     

Cultural Evolution and Ideology in Korean Soccer: Sport and Nationalism

Modern Korean sports have been adopted mostly from the West, but now Korea has emerged as a sporting power demanding global attention. The influence of historical and political ideology has been in the cultural background of Korean sports development, and the process of cultural evolution in soccer may be explained in the similar context. What helped the Korean soccer team qualify for the World Cup eight consecutive times – only the sixth country in the world to do so – thus making it the most powerful soccer team in Asia? Soccer initially appeared in Korea during the threat of Japanese invasion, and this backdrop provided the opportunity for soccer to be combined with nationalism and transformed into a cultural product that confronted Japanese imperialism. Since the Korean War, South Korean soccer has become a vehicle for ideological confrontation with North Korea amid the atmosphere of the Cold War, and it thus gave rise to sports nationalism by revealing an ideological superiority and nationalistic disposition. Soccer, which arrived in Korea on a British ship, has become a representative Korean sport and continuously challenges the global stage ahead of Asia's leading economic power. It was against the background of such rapid development that nationalism formed.     

Crossing Boundaries and Changing Identities: Empowering South Asian Women through Sport and Physical Activities

The participation of women in sport is significant to socio-economic empowerment in any country. Evidence reveal that although South Asian female athletes are capable of winning medals in the Olympics, a very low percentage of the South Asian female population ever participate actively in sport. The status and circumstances to participate in sport are restricted for many female athletes in South Asia. This paper examined the main factors that influence women's sporting participation in South Asian countries. Data were analysed by using documentary analysis method. This paper analysed a combination of concepts addressing women and sport in South Asia in two ways. Firstly, it emphasises the issues and patterns of women's participation in sport in South Asian countries after the independence from the British Empire. Secondly, it highlights the benefits to South Asian societies of women's participation in sport, but argues why South Asian women are trivialised in sports participation. Results revealed the inequalities and discrimination that constrain women from participating in the South Asian sports sector as personal, social and cultural barriers. Possible solutions are provided to reduce these factors to encourage South Asian women's participation in sport. Success and the implications of South Asian governments’ interventions on women and sport are also discussed. Results of this study revealed the inequalities and discrimination that constrain women from participating in the South Asian sports sector is continuing.     

Echoes of the Tragedy: The Sport Memoir and the Representation of the 1950 World Cup

This article delves into the meaning of the 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil after a 12-year hiatus due to the Second World War and two decades after a South American country (Uruguay) had hosted the tournament. The aim of this paper is to reflect on the role of sport memoirs in the cementing of a collective imagination on the Brazilian National Team's defeat in 1950. Anchored on a triple dimension – organisational, tactical and technical – the analysis explores the way in which the loss of the title to the Uruguayan team was experienced by a number of actors – among them players, management personnel and fans – and set in writing by many generations of sports writers. Through the diachronic choice of works published by journalists (which include memoirs, news stories, biographies and autobiographies), the objective is to point to the congealing of a rhetoric made up of negative remarks associated to the football event, such as ‘trauma’, ‘drama’, ‘tragedy’ and even ‘catastrophe’. Contemporary historical perspective, which questions the deep-rooted opposition between memory and history will be turned so as to support the consideration of whether the former can in fact direct, or even shape, the latter's features.     

Syrian Sport on an International Stage: Evaluating the Sports Movement between 1970 and 2013

Although Syria did not compete in Olympic Games between 1948 and 1970, its participation in most sport mega-events has been varied in terms of the level of participation, results, different championships and sports mega-events types since 1970. The nature of Syria's involvement in sport on the international stage reflects the nature of the institutional-culture context after the ‘Corrective Movement’ led by the late President Hafez al-Assad. This article relies on the official archive of the General Sport Federation in Syria, official International Olympic Committee publications and other material to examine the history of Syria's competitions and its results in different sports events. It is argued that Syrian competition in most regional/international games has not only been because of the social/political support represented by the Baath party but also it has been a means of reflecting the civilised and secular face of Syria and Syrians after a long period of coups in the 1950s and 1960s. This paper concludes by contending that political stability between 1970 and 2011 helped the sports movement to flourish. Even political conflicts after 2011 did not influence the desire for competition, but it was noted that the lack of security, and the increasing terrorism and political/economic sanctions, were the major barriers to Syrian sport on an international stage after the ‘Arab Spring’, which had a negative impact on the support of most sports teams and missions.     

Norwegian Naivety Meets Tanzanian Reality: The Case of the Norwegian Sports Development Aid Programme,Sport for All,in Dar es Salaam in the 1980s

In the early 1980s, the Norwegian Confederation of Sports (NIF) initiated a sports development aid programme known as the Sport for All in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. One of the objectives of the Sport for All was to strengthen women's participation in sports in Dar es Salaam, an objective much in line with Norwegian domestic sport politics, as well as general aid policies at the time. Through the case of the Sport for All, this paper illuminates what conceptions the Norwegian initiative takers had of Tanzanian women and sport, and how a women emphasis fit the Tanzanian society at the time. The discrepancy between the ideals of recipient orientation and women emphasis is questioned, and it is argued that, in the case of the Sport for All, the NIF acted with a certain naivety. It is suggested that Western liberal ideas that works well in the societies of their origin may generate a cultural clash when meeting in a different milieu.     

试论我国体育统计教材中基本概念定义的科学性

对我国现行体育统计教材分析研究,发现我国体育统计学科存在着不成熟和不规范的问题。突出表现为:许多基本概念的定义不统一和缺乏科学性。因而学生在学习体育统计时容易造成理解上的混乱,这也阻碍了体育统计学科的发展。本文对这些问题进行了初步探讨,对其中一些基表概念重新予以定义并对体育统计学科的发展。提出了若干建议。     

美国大众体育管理印象与思考 ———以洛杉矶市为例

通过对美国洛杉矶市大众体育管理情况的典型调查，对城市政府在发展大众体育中的地位和作用，对大众体育管理体制、对公共体育设施建设和大众体育管理观念进行了介绍与思考。