遗产层摞与创造:北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产战略研究

作为国际奥委会《奥林匹克2020议程》颁布后首届全面规划管理奥运遗产的盛会,北京冬奥会提出的“创造丰厚冬奥遗产”理念,在扩展学界对遗产认识新视野的同时,亦为北京冬奥会遗产战略计划的实施提出了新课题,同时也为既往学界提出的遗产层摞与创造理念提供了实践范例。一批有影响、可持续的冬奥遗产价值正在逐步显现,无论是直接遗产还是间接遗产,无论是有形遗产还是无形遗产,均已经或正在对国家、区域和主办城市的发展发挥着积极作用。研究认为,在北京冬奥会筹办过程中提出的创造遗产理念,是以与奥运相关的既往遗产层摞为起点的。对北京2008年奥运会遗产及其相关遗产的层摞,为北京冬奥会筹办提供了遗产传承的基础;而北京冬奥会筹办过程中对遗产的创造,在为其举办一届“精彩、非凡、卓越”奥运盛会提供有利条件的同时,还将继续融入到国家、区域和城市发展之中,成为人民追求幸福美好生活重要、长久的推动力,成为弘扬奥林匹克精神,引领社会文明进步的重要基础。     

A Theoretical Approach for the Olympic Legacy Study Focusing on Sustainable Sport Legacy

The management of the Olympic Games has changed significantly since the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games. The introduction of commercialisation probably saved the Olympic Games from a fateful crisis. It brought financial stability and attracted cities to bid for the Games. On the other hand, the impact of hosting the Olympic Games increased as more stakeholders became involved in its management. In addition, the global community became concerned about environmental issues. Global organisations including the International Olympic Committee (IOC) were required to take actions towards sustainable development. In this context, the debate regarding the Olympic legacy became of interest among stakeholders and researchers. The IOC introduced indicators to measure impact and legacy, which is now referred to as Olympic Games Impact (OGI). However, there are some issues in the current OGI study. This paper aims to suggest a theoretical approach which would contribute to solve the issues by focusing on sustainable sport legacy as an example. The proposed theoretical approach is focusing on event objective and analysing the relationship between sport policy and sport legacy development concentrated on the process and opportunity rather than the outcome.     

北京奥运会遗产展望:不同洲际奥运会举办国家的比较研究

对过去半个世纪举办过奥运会的不同洲际的8个城市在有形遗产和无形遗产方面进行比较研究，发现由于经济发展水平不同，文化背景差异和国际大环境的变化，每个举办城市所留下的遗产各有特色。2008年第29届奥运会的遗产将体现在现代的城市、一流的体育设施、增长的经济、具有中国特色的开／闭幕式、公私合作的奥运运作模式、奥运价值的认同、自愿服务意识建立等方面。     

冬奥遗产逐步扩展期研究

奥运遗产的演进历程,是奥林匹克运动发展轨迹的生动展现。冬奥遗产的演变进程大致经历了初创期、逐步扩展期、快速积累期和可持续发展期。采用文献研究法、历史分析法,对冬奥遗产逐步扩展期（1946-1960年）冬奥会的举办情况、遗产积累、发展的亮点和难点进行了探讨。冬奥遗产逐步扩展期是冬奥遗产演变进程的第二阶段,该阶段奥林匹克运动思想体系、组织制度体系、活动体系的遗产得到扩展,举办城市及其所在国家体育领域和其他领域的遗产也获得一定的积累。冬奥遗产逐步扩展期遗产发展的亮点,体现在奥林匹克主义承载着人们对和平的美好向往,以及冬奥遗产发展的领域更加全面。同时,该阶段遗产发展也遇到内部和外部因素的挑战。在冬奥遗产逐步扩展期,以国际奥委会为首的奥林匹克大家庭对遗产的认识和实践取得了一定进步,对后续冬奥遗产的快速发展起到了推进作用,但客观上依然受时代发展的局限,停留在较为初步的水平。     

北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产价值及其评估研究

北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产是中国对奥林匹克运动许下的新愿景,这一愿景具体在《北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产战略计划》的7项遗产、35项内容之中得以体现,它们既是对未来遗产的多元创造,也是对既有遗产的夏冬延续。根据历届OGI报告、奥组委官方政策文本与"一续二全三跨"原则,确定北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产的评估要求,并以定量与定性结合分析法、KPIs、风险评估法、成本效益分析法为指引,打造一个凝聚新理念、汇聚新模式、融合新方法的奥运遗产价值评估的"北京方案"。     

北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产价值及其评估研究

北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产是中国对奥林匹克运动许下的新愿景,这一愿景具体在《北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产战略计划》的7项遗产、35项内容之中得以体现,它们既是对未来遗产的多元创造,也是对既有遗产的夏冬延续。根据历届OGI报告、奥组委官方政策文本与"一续二全三跨"原则,确定北京2022年冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产的评估要求,并以定量与定性结合分析法、KPIs、风险评估法、成本效益分析法为指引,打造一个凝聚新理念、汇聚新模式、融合新方法的奥运遗产价值评估的"北京方案"。     

Sports Infrastructure,Legacy and the Paradox of the 1984 Olympic Games

The 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games created a new sponsorship model for organising committees, changed perceptions about the value of hosting the Games, encouraged greater reliance on television revenue and generated a $232.5 million surplus. Although observers rarely cite sports venues as a 1984 legacy, the Los Angeles Olympics resulted in the construction or improvement of nearly 100 sport facilities in Southern California in three decades following the Games. These sports spaces served more than 500,000 young people annually. Much of the construction funding came from grants made by the LA84 Foundation, which was endowed with Southern California's share of the 1984 surplus. The Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee (LAOOC) achieved a surplus by producing substantial revenues while tightly controlling costs. A key element of cost control was limited spending on Olympic venues. The LAOOC built only three new venues, relying on existing stadiums for all other venues. The LAOOC's construction budget was significantly lower than those of other Olympic organisers in the 1980s and 1990s. Thus, by building very few new venues for the 1984 Games, the LAOOC laid the groundwork for a legacy of sports fields, tracks, gymnasiums and pools built or improved after 1984.     

新冠疫情对2022年北京冬奥会体育遗产影响的内容、路径和方式

以新冠疫情对2022年北京冬奥会体育遗产的影响为研究目标,将《2022年北京冬奥会和冬残奥会遗产战略计划》中体育遗产的7项重点任务作为分析框架,通过对国家体育总局、北京冬奥组委等部门的26名工作人员访谈,收集质性数据,发现新冠疫情对2022年北京冬奥会体育遗产的消极影响源自2条路径:①疫情直接影响冬奥体育遗产;②疫情导致东京奥运会延迟,间接影响冬奥体育遗产。其对冬奥体育遗产的积极影响源自3条路径:①利益相关者因疫情改变工作模式,获得新知识;②疫情的消极影响产生替代效应;③利益相关者在应对疫情中形成新关系。基于此,从冬奥遗产工作常态化疫情防控的必要条件、中和消极影响的基本方法、开发积极影响的路径与方式等维度提出建议。     

An Organizational Life Cycle Approach to Exploring the Elite Sport Legacy of Summer Olympic Host Nations: The Cases of China (Beijing 2008) and Australia (Sydney 2000)

Abstract

This paper investigates the elite sport legacies of hosting the Summer Olympics for China (Beijing 2008) and Australia (Sydney 2000). The classic organizational life cycle approach provides the conceptual framework for this retroductive study. The data for both cases are sourced from official publications, academic research, and documents from various government departments and organizations. Additional data are drawn from three semi-structured interviews with key Chinese stakeholders. The analysis provides clear evidence that governments and their stakeholders use the opportunities afforded by a home Olympics to boost Olympic performance. China and Australia experienced a similar four-phase pattern of elite sport legacy life cycle: start-up, growth, maintenance, and decline. Both countries also shared many similar policy and management factors throughout each stage. An increased awareness of the sequential nature of elite sport legacy can help Olympic host countries make a more informed decision about their long-term strategies for elite sport success.     

Rhetoric and realities of London 2012 Olympic education and participation ‘legacies’: voices from the core and periphery

A legacy emphasis was one of the fundamental pillars of the London 2012 Olympic Games. The notion of an Olympic legacy was predicated on assumptions that the event's value would not purely derive from the sporting spectacle, but rather from the ‘success’ of enduring effects met out in London and across the country. For physical education students and practitioners, Olympic legacy agendas translated into persistent pressure to increase inspiration, engagement, participation and performance in the subject, sport and physical activity. Responding to this context, and cognizant of significant disciplinary scholarship, this paper reports initial data from the first phase of a longitudinal study involving Key Stage Three (students aged 11–13) cohorts in two comparable United Kingdom schools: the first an inner-city (core) London school adjacent to the Olympic Park in Stratford, East London (n = 150); the second a (peripheral) school in the Midlands (n = 198). The research involved the use of themed questionnaires focusing on self-reported attitudes towards the Olympic Games and experiences of physical education, sport and physical activity. Students from both schools demonstrated a wide variety of attitudes towards physical education and sport; yet, minor variances emerged regarding extreme enthusiasm levels. Both cohorts also expressed considerably mixed feelings towards the impending Olympic Games. Strong and variable responses were also reported regarding inspiration levels, ticketing acquisition and engagement levels. Consequently, this investigation can be read within the broader context of legacy debates and aligns well with physical educationalists' ongoing discomfort regarding legacy imperatives being enforced upon the discipline and its practitioners. Our work reiterates a shared disciplinary scepticism that while an Olympic Games may temporarily affect young peoples' affectations for sport (and maybe physical education and physical activity), it may not provide the best, or most appropriate, mechanism for sustained attitudinal and/or social changes en masse.     

Did London 2012 deliver a sports participation legacy?

Despite the increasing academic interest in the analysis of the Olympic legacy, there is a relative knowledge gap as far as sports participation legacy is concerned. The authors bridge this gap by analysing the short-term sports participation legacy of the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games on the adult population in England. By using data from the Active People Survey and considering different sports participation variables and the effect of the economic climate, results demonstrate a positive association with participation from hosting the Games. Participation rates were adjusted to take into account seasonality and changes in the gross domestic product (GDP), accounting in this way for the effect of the recent economic recession. The biggest effect was observed in relation to frequent participation (at least three times per week for at least 30 min) in the year immediately after the Games. In 2014, the sports participation rates fell relative to 2013 but remained higher than pre-Olympic levels. The sport participation legacy of the Olympic Games appeared to have significant differences between socio-demographic groups.     

现代奥运会与古代奥运会主要特点的比较

对现代奥运会与古代奥运会的主要特点进行了比较研究,指出:现代奥运会受古代奥运会的影响,在名称、举办周期、某些仪式和思想内容上继承了古代的优秀遗产,但又与古代奥运会有着本质的不同,它不是古代奥运会的延续和翻版,而是在资本主义背景下诞生的全新的文化现象。     

Region and Race: The Legacies of the St Louis Olympics

St Louis staged the third modern Olympics in 1904, an event most historians have labelled as a less than memorable occasion and some have contended nearly derailed the nascent Olympic movement. Consigned to a regional hamlet rather than a global city, the 1904 St Louis games were supposedly a model of how not to conduct an Olympian spectacle. Taking a different perspective, however, the St Louis games had a profound influence on how the United States has staged Olympics. The Olympics have not been held in established or well-known American metropolises but have consistently gone to up-and-coming cities in border regions eager to make national and global reputations. In addition, the 1904 St Louis games were held in a legally segregated city but permitted the inclusion for the first time of African-American athletes in Olympic competition. Race and region provided foundations for American interpretations of the 1904 Olympics and have remained paramount in national memories of Olympian events ever since. From St Louis in 1904 through Atlanta in 1996 race and region have been central themes in American Olympic experiences.     

Peter Ueberroth's Legacy: How the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics Changed the Trajectory of the Olympic Movement

Interest in staging the Olympic Games waned in cities across the world in the 1970s, given the intrusion of world geo-politics on recent festivals and the exploding costs of staging them. In running the show in Los Angeles, Peter Ueberroth prioritised pre-existing facilities, a new and more profitable means of affiliating corporate sponsors with an organising committee, and maximising revenue from television rights negotiations. His success encouraged cities to re-enter the bidding for Olympic festivals, and when combined with initiatives launched by the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) President, Juan Antonio Samaranch, brighter days for the IOC lay ahead in the 1980s and 1990s. Yet, Ueberroth's legacy was not well managed ultimately by Samaranch, who permitted the enhanced competition among bid cities, and the behaviour of bid officials and some of his own members to endanger the IOC's reputation and autonomy, highlighted notably by the Salt Lake City scandal. Last, in light of the cost of the Olympic festivals in Beijing and Sochi, and its dampening effect on the current host city bidding environment, it seems wise for the IOC and future bid cities to re-visit the Ueberroth model for lessons in cost containment, and like Ueberroth, exhibit a willingness to explore novel, more cost-effective means for cities to host the Olympic Games.     

A qualitative study of the impact of the London 2012 Olympics on families in the East Midlands of England: lessons for sports development policy and practice

The dynamics and culture of families are central to individual and community sport and physical activity participation. This research project examined the lived experiences and day-to-day realities of the London 2012 Olympics from the perspectives of five families in the East Midlands region of England. The aims of the project were to assess the influence the Games had on shaping family sports participation, influencing social and health relationships within the families through sports and reactions to the 2012 Olympics. The study was conducted through the generation of rich qualitative data from pre- and post-Games interviews as well as production of video diary data by the families and young people themselves to gather micro-level information on the realities of ‘legacy’ for families. Findings from this research project illustrate that prior parental socialisation into sport shaped current attitudes to legacy and children and mothers and fathers had mixed reactions to the actual presence of legacy. There are also clear sports development challenges around accessibility, cost, project design, the non-family-friendly nature of some schemes present during the potential consumption of legacy that have consequences for future research in this embryonic area. Implications from the study include the need to locate the family as a more central concern for policy makers in sports development practice. The study has questioned the assumed virtuous legacy of the London 2012 Games from the perspective of families on a day-to-day micro-level. Instead, a far more complex and diverse picture from the perspective of the family has been presented that requires further critical research on this little explored topic of policy and practice in sports development.     

Considering legacy as a multi-dimensional construct: The legacy of the Olympic Games

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) requires cities that bid for the Olympic Games to formulate a legacy strategy. This case follows a sport professional tasked with developing an Olympic bid for their city. Specifically, the case considers various legacy outcomes including: destination image, tourism, cost, venues, housing, and social legacies. The case is written with anonymity of the actual city so that the instructor can adapt the case to a specific city. The case is particularly useful for courses covering sport tourism, stakeholder management, event management, or sport economics and finance.     

冬奥遗产可持续发展期研究

冬奥遗产不断发展,见证了奥林匹克运动随时代变迁持续改革与创新的进程。研究基于文献研究法、历史分析法,尝试分析冬奥遗产可持续发展期(1992年—)冬奥遗产发展的新变化。研究认为,自1992年国际奥委会正式回应联合国可持续发展全球性指导纲领《21世纪议程》后,冬奥遗产逐渐进入可持续发展时期的初级阶段。确立可持续发展目标后,奥林匹克运动思想体系、组织制度体系和活动体系的遗产均开始注重可持续性的体现,举办城市及国家也希望通过筹备冬奥会尽力实现体育领域和其他领域的可持续发展。冬奥遗产可持续发展时期初级阶段的亮点是可持续发展成为引领奥林匹克运动前行的重要主题后,为冬奥遗产注入了新的“灵魂”,北京2022年冬奥会反映了冬奥遗产可持续发展的更高水平。然而,由于时代与事物发展的客观局限,人类社会、奥林匹克运动以及冬奥遗产的可持续发展历程才刚刚起步,因而来自内外环境等方面的挑战仍需引起重视并予以化解,而新冠疫情等风险因素更是为可持续发展的落实带来了难度。作为时代进步的主旋律,可持续发展为冬奥遗产的演进打开了新的局面。研究通过对冬奥遗产可持续发展期初级阶段进行分析,力求补充和完善奥运遗产研究理论体系,进而为冬奥遗产的可持续发展做出理论和实践探索。     

北京中小学奥林匹克教育遗产研究

采用文献资料法、逻辑分析法、访谈法等研究方法,从理念、组织管理和活动3个维度入手,对北京中小学奥林匹克教育遗产进行了全面地探讨分析,旨在为未来奥运会主办城市开展奥林匹克教育提供借鉴,更为重要的是,国际奥委会已决定将2014年第2届夏季青年奥林匹克运动会的承办权授予了中国南京市,由此北京中小学奥林匹克教育遗产为南京青奥会更有相当意义的启示和借鉴作用。     

对《2012伦敦奥运会和残奥会遗产计划》的解析

运用《奥运举办城市可持续发展计划评估量表》,从战略目标总体规划、设施规划、奥林匹克公园开发、基础设施规划等方面,对《2012伦敦奥运会和残奥会遗产计划》进行分析。认为:《2012伦敦奥运会和残奥会遗产计划》中关于奥林匹克城市建设方面具有较好的可持续性;奥林匹克城市发展与城市长期总体规划及其他地方规划具有较高的一致性。     

Coaching under pressure: a study of Olympic coaches

The Olympic environment has been identified as particularly stressful and unlike any other in terms of the media attention and focus placed on the competition. While the potential negative consequences of stress for coaches and their athletes have been explored, relatively little is known about the factors underpinning successful Olympic coaching performance. We explored elite coaches' perceptions of the factors that enable them to coach in a stressful Olympic environment. Eight coaches from one of Great Britain's most successful Olympic teams (i.e. consistent medal winners in the previous three Olympics) were interviewed. Inductive content analysis indicated that psychological attributes (e.g. emotional control), preparation (e.g. strategic approach), and coping at the event (e.g. team support) were factors that coaches perceived as important for successful Olympic coaching. In addition, coaches offered specific suggestions for training and development. Key themes included coach interaction (e.g. mentoring, formalizing contact) and simulating Olympic pressure. These findings offer suggestions for the education of developing coaches on the pathway to elite sports coaching.