Intellectuals and Warriors: The Ideological and Political Basis of Francoist University Sport, 1933–1946

Abstract

Examining the use of sport by totalitarian regimes during the interbellum period reveals that politicians saw the potential of sport not only for patriotic expression and international exhibition but also as a means to exert control over youth. Francoism participated in such uses of sport, imitating German and Italian organizations’ development of a youth sport structure. The Franco regime emphasized sport in universities to the extent that it made physical education a required subject to obtain a degree. This study’s primary objective is to reconstruct the doctrinal genesis of Francoist university sport, tracing it to the years before the Spanish Civil War, specifically noting the international influences that sustained it and the draft regulations that gave it legal standing despite resistance from both university youth and from sport. To this end, documentary sources are analyzed, including archival material, printed sources (legal decrees written during the period examined in this study and historical accounts of the subject), publications of Falange and related organizations, and speeches and proclamations from Falange and the Sindicato Español Universitario (SEU).     

‘The Hefty Hebrew’: Boxing and British-Jewish Identity, 1890–1960

Between the late 1890s and early 1950s, British boxing was dominated by Jews of Russian and Eastern European migrant origin. In a wider sense, an analysis of boxing can add to our understanding of broader social changes occurring within British Jewry during this roughly 60-year period. However, involvement in boxing during these years (whether as amateurs or professionals, as boxers, managers, promoters, coaches or spectators) also had a noticeable direct impact on the identity of scores of young Jews. This article will show that social change occurring within British Jewry between 1890 and 1960 did not occur separately from the world of British boxing. Although this sport can act as a lens through which to view transformations in terms of Jewish identity, class, religious outlook and culture, it is also the case that boxing clearly influenced changes in these spheres for a significant section of the community.     

Between Survival Strategy and Bloody Violence: Boxing in Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camps (1940–1945)

Abstract

Concentration and extermination camps were micro-societies characterized by inequality: the SS reigned supreme over a multitude of prisoners who were either exterminated upon their arrival, or died of hunger and ill-treatment while a few privileged ones enjoyed much more decent living conditions. This disturbing reality is studied here through a singular cultural practice: boxing. The way the SS exploited the talent of prisoners with boxing skills for training purposes and boxing events testifies to their own corporal culture, which was itself a product of the strict order and discipline imposed on German society by the Nazi regime through sport. Concentration camp prisoners’ bodies were mere tools that could be put to use for ideological and leisure purposes. Boxing turns out to be a compelling match from which to analyze the social structure of concentration camps: boxing was a leisure activity and a power game to some, a livelihood to others, a torture for the prisoners who were the underdogs, but also a means for a very small minority to escape their plight. It also is an opportunity to bring to light the connections existing between control over and destruction of bodies, between survival and staying power.     

The Rise of ‘The World's Largest Sport and Athletic Outfitter’: A Study of Gamage's of Holborn, 1878–1913

This essay explores the evolution of modern sporting goods retailing through the development of Gamage's (A.W. Gamage Holborn Ltd.) before the First World War. The essay examines how Gamage's exploited new models of fashionable consumerism to create a unique retail environment that directly targeted young male consumers enjoying modern forms of sporting and recreational activities. By the end of the nineteenth century, the so-called ‘People's Popular Emporium’ purported to be the ‘world's largest sport and athletic outfitter’. The essay considers Gamage's rise to prominence in a crucial period in the development of commodity culture. It examines the changing cultural form of shops and shopping in relation to the desires of a burgeoning mass market that sought to express and visibly display its economic, sporting, and social status.     

Close Strangers or Strange Friends? The London Olympics and Anglo-Norwegian Sports Relations in a Historical Perspective

This article studies similarities and disparities between the two nations England and Norway as they could be observed before and during the London 2012 Olympics, and discuss them in the historical perspective of geopolitical and sportive relations. The main perspective is how these relations have been seen and experienced from Norway. The article also studies whether the London Olympics of 2012 did present new forms of relationships between the two geographical neighbours. The article discusses the role of ball games, preferably team handball at the 2012 Games, as one example of where sporting interests differ. The article reflects upon these matters in a historical context. It builds upon traditional historical methods, document and media analysis. It also looks at the 2012 London Olympics against the background of the former London Games of 1908 and 1948, and the overall historical sports relations between England, ‘land of sport’ and a small country like Norway, who generally has been on the receiving end of these interchanges. Such asymmetric relationships invite to a critical use of perspectives like cultural imperialism and post-colonialism. The article discusses whether such perspectives can be fruitful also when one discusses matters between the so-called First World nations. As the title of the article indicates, Norway and England are both close, politically and culturally, while also being strangers to one another, e.g. in parts of the sports culture. The 2012 Olympics seemed to reinforce this impression.     

Sport and Politics: The Cultural Revolution in the Chinese Sports Ministry, 1966–1976

Abstract

The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) was one of the most violent political movements to have taken place in modern Chinese history. Sport was not immune from this political storm. In the first phase of the revolution (1966–1972), the country’s sport system was brought down by the Red Guards and revolutionary rebels. Athletes, coaches and officials who dared to challenge the Maoists were arrested and tortured, and suffered greatly as a result of their ‘counter-revolutionary’ status. In the second phase of the revolution (1972–1976), the Sports Ministry became a battlefront in the power struggle within the PRC leadership. This paper studies the relationships between sport, politics and power struggle during the Cultural Revolution. It points out that what happened in the Sports Ministry demonstrates how China’s sport system was linked to and affected by top-level power struggles and ideological conflicts. It also reflected how ordinary people’s lives were affected by the revolution.     

A Competition that Shook European Football: The Origins of the European Champion Clubs' Cup, 1954–1955

This article examines the establishment of the men's football European Champion Clubs' Cup in the mid-1950s. Its aim is to explain the reasons which led to the realization of this contest at this time in the sport's history. The creation of the competition was the result of the daily newspaper L'Équipe's undertakings. Its financial capacity, its experience in developing competitions and the ties it maintained with important figures in the field of football equipped the newspaper with the assets to foster a keen interest around the project and thus capitalize on a context in European football that was particularly favourable to the creation of this contest. This study was conducted based on the reading of the issues of L'Équipe and France Football from that time period, on unprecedented research in the archives of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), complemented with documentation obtained from the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA). In addition, this research benefited from a long interview conducted with Jacques Ferran, a journalist who participated directly in the development of the project.     

The Social,Political and Economic Contexts to the Evolution of Spanish Physical Educationalists (1874–1992)

This article studies the history of physical education teacher training centres in Spain from the end of the nineteenth century to the end of the twentieth century. It focuses on analysing the studies offered at these centres, which reflect how the training received by the teachers responsible for running physical education lessons in schools has evolved. The content of the different syllabuses has been influenced by the social, political and economic context of each historical era, and the courses have gradually raised their requirements, becoming equivalent to higher university studies.     

Sports Gambling during the Second World War: A British Entertainment for Critical Times or a National Evil?

The catastrophe of the Second World War had a significant effect on British social and economic life, with less leisure and more time and energy spent on the war effort, yet sports betting survived. The paper begins by examining the arguments strongly advanced by vociferous anti-betting groups in the first years after the outbreak of war, and assesses their limited success. Assessments of betting turnover suggest an initial decline in betting, largely perhaps because of the brief curtailment of horse racing, dog racing, and football, the three principal betting media. The paper explores some of the reasons why it then once more increased, according to the surveys of the Churches Committee on Gambling or Mass Observation. The argument focuses on provision and betting organization: the continued legal opportunities within Britain, including new ‘unity’ football pools, the reopening of some English racecourses and dog-tracks, and the new opportunities created by illegal ready-money bookmakers, such as Irish horse-racing results, which were unaffected by the war. The national government took the view that the betting sports were ‘entertainments’ and ‘in the public interest’, and also helped by providing scarce petrol to assist with the movement of horses and dogs to meetings.     

‘Nothing but Trouble’: The Soviet Union's Push to ‘Democratise’ International Sports During the Cold War, 1959–1962

Analysing internal documents from recently accessible Soviet archives as well as International Olympic Committee (IOC) correspondence, this article explores how Soviet sports administrators sought to gain influence and authority in international sports in order to advance Soviet state goals during the Cold War. To counter the ‘reactionary’, ‘Anglo-American’ bloc they perceived in the IOC and International Federations (IFs), members of the Soviet All-Union Committee on Physical Culture and Sport sought to ‘democratise’ international sports organisations by transforming them into truly international bodies that included representatives from all regions of the world, especially those sympathetic to the Soviet Union. Because of the governing culture of the IOC and the personalities of many of its members, any stance taken on by Soviet members could not overtly challenge Olympic ideals. Couching their call to expand Olympism in the principles of international cooperation, democracy and the right for everyone to participate in sports, Soviet administrators could present themselves as dedicated promoters of sport and use their clout to further Soviet interests. Through their efforts to increase Soviet influence globally, Soviet administrators challenged the insularity of the IOC and IFs and helped to transform international sports and the Olympic Games into a truly global movement.     

Football in Inter-war Northern Ireland: Ballymena Football and Athletic Club Limited – Religious and Political Exclusivity or Civic Inclusivity?

Historians have almost universally seen association football in the north of Ireland as a divisive influence. The impacts of sectarian and political tensions on the game have been stressed, alongside the extent to which this sport supposedly feeds into existing divisions. Much of the work carried out has concentrated on the last four decades, though even studies outside this period of widespread civil disorder have highlighted these problems. This paper uses the surviving records of the Ballymena Football and Athletic Club, the local press, census returns and other records to consider aspects of one particular Northern Irish club in the 1920s and 1930s. This short consideration of the players, supporters and shareholders suggests that at least in this case football was successful in bringing together and developing cooperation between men of widely differing political and religious views. While the club was a not a financial success, it was a social and sporting one. The evidence available suggests there was little exhibition of sectarian tension at any level.

Le football en Irlande du Nord dans l'entre-deux-guerres: Ballymena Football and Athletic Club Limited - exclusivité religieuse et politique ou intégration civique

Les historiens ont presque universellement perçu le football en Irlande du Nord sous l'angle d'une influence séparative. L'impact des tensions sectaires et politiques sur le jeu a été souligné, en même temps que la manière dont ce sport est censée s'intégrer dans des divisions existantes. La plupart des travaux effectués se sont concentrés sur les quatre dernières décennies, bien que même les études sur d'autres périodes que celle des troubles civiles aient mis en évidence ces problèmes. Cet article utilise les archives du Ballymena Football and Athletic Club qui ont survécu, la presse locale, des rapports de recensement et d'autres rapports pour reconsidérer les dimensions d'un club particulier d'Irlande du Nord dans les années 1920 et 1930. Ce bref regard sur les joueurs, les supporters et les actionnaires suggère qu'au moins dans ce cas, le football est parvenu à réconcilier et développer la coopération entre des hommes d'origines politiques et religieuses largement différentes. Si le club ne fut pas un succès économique, il en fut un sur le plan social et sportif. Les sources disponibles suggèrent qu'il y a eu peu d'affichage de tensions communautaires à quelque niveau que ce soit.

El fútbol en la Irlanda del Norte de entreguerras. Ballymena Football and Athletic Club Limited: segregación religiosa y política o integración cívica

Casi todos los historiadores han considerado el fútbol en Irlanda del Norte como una influencia segregadora. Se ha subrayado el impacto sobre este deporte de las tensiones sectarias y políticas, así como el grado en que el fútbol se supone que ha alimentado las divisiones existentes. Gran parte de la investigación desarrollada se ha centrado en las últimas cuatro décadas, aunque otros estudios sobre periodos anteriores a esta época de desórdenes civiles generalizados han recalcado estos mismos problemas. El presente artículo utiliza los archivos conservados del Ballymena Football and Athletic Club, la prensa local, registros del censo y otros documentos para analizar aspectos de un club norirlandés en concreto en los años 20 y 30 del siglo XX. Este breve estudio de los jugadores, los seguidores y los accionistas sugiere que por lo menos en este caso el fútbol consiguió integrar y estimular la cooperación entre hombres con creencias políticas y religiosas muy diversas. Si bien el club no constituyó un éxito económico, sí lo fue desde el punto de vista social y deportivo. La información disponible indica que en su seno hubo pocas manifestaciones de tensiones sectarias de cualquier tipo.

Fußball in Nordirland zwischen den Weltkriegen: Ballymena Football and Athletic Club Limited – religiöse und politische Exklusivität oder bürgerliches Mitwirken

Historiker haben Fußball in Nordirland fast übereinstimmend als trennenden Einfluss wahrgenommen. Neben dem Umfang, in dem sich dieser Sport vermutlich auf die bereits vorhandene Spaltung auswirkt, wurde das Einwirken von konfessionsgebundenen und politischen Spannungen auf das Spiel untersucht. Ein großer Teil der durchgeführten Forschung konzentrierte sich auf die letzten vier Jahrzehnte, obwohl auch Studien außerhalb dieser Periode des weitverbreiteten bürgerlichen Widerstands diese Probleme hervorgehoben haben. Diese Abhandlung verwendet noch existierende Aufzeichnungen des Ballymena Football and Athletic Clubs, der lokalen Presse, Volkszählungsberichte und weitere Aufzeichnungen, um die Erscheinung eines ausgewählten nordirischen Klubs in den 1920er und 1930er Jahren nachzuvollziehen. Diese kurze Betrachtung der Spieler, Unterstützer und Anteilseigner lässt vermuten, dass Fußball, zumindest in diesem Fall, erfolgreich darin war, Männer mit äußerst unterschiedlichen politischen und religiösen Ansichten zusammenzubringen und ihre Kooperation zu fördern. Während der Klub kein finanzieller Erfolg war, so war er es doch in sozialer und sportlicher Hinsicht. Das verfügbare Material deutet darauf hin, dass konfessionelle Spannungen auf den verschiedenen Ebenen kaum sichtbar wurden.

     

Structure and dynamics of European sports science textual contents: Analysis of ECSS abstracts (1996–2014)

Abstract

The article discusses general structure and dynamics of the sports science research content as obtained from the analysis of 21998 European College of Sport Science abstracts belonging to 12 science topics. The structural analysis showed intertwined multidisciplinary and unifying tendencies structured along horizontal (scope) and vertical (level) axes. Methodological (instrumental and mode of inquiry) integrative tendencies are dominant. Theoretical integrative tendencies are much less detectable along both horizontal and vertical axes. The dynamic analysis of written abstracts text content over the 19 years reveals the contextualizing and guiding role of thematic skeletons of each sports science topic in forming more detailed contingent research ideas and the role of the latter in stabilizing and procreating the former. This circular causality between both hierarchical levels and functioning on separate characteristic time scales is crucial for understanding how stable research traditions self-maintain and self-procreate through innovative contingencies. The structure of sports science continuously rebuilds itself through use and re-use of contingent research ideas. The thematic skeleton ensures its identity and the contingent conceptual sets its flexibility and adaptability to different research or applicative problems.     

The long and short of (performance) surfing: tightening patriarchal threads in boardshorts and bikinis?

Surfing economies, working through material culture in the form of high fashion clothing, surfing monikers or fashion clothing has had scholarly attention in the past. Unlike other sports however, clothing for performance rather than fashion or cultural consumption remains under-researched. With increasing research on the gendered and sexualized nature of surfing alongside an increasing emphasis on female surfing as athletic performance, a paradox seems apparent. In warm-water competition, women deal with tensions associated with appearance, sponsorship driven by sexual objectification and functional surfwear that increases exposed body surface – while men’s clothing epitomizes comfort, protection and ultimately a reduction in exposed body surface. Under the guise of athletic performance and celebrating female gains in the sport, a patriarchal thread seems to tie up a particular sex, gender and sexuality order that is neither new nor productive for high performance or full participation.