African-American women's decisions to become teachers: Sociocultural perspectives

In this study the authors describe sociocultural and school-related factors that influenced African-American women's perceptions of teaching and decisions to teach. Surveys were conducted of the participants' demographic and background characteristics, and life histories were developed that focused on early experiences with the family, in the community, and at school and how these experiences influenced their perceptions of teaching. These data revealed that the mother, women in the community, and female teachers were significant influences on the participants' decisions to teach. Moreover, their experiences and interpretations of these experiences have shaped their images of good teaching as shared, culturally responsive mothering. The participants' life histories further revealed that as their conceptions of good mothering and good teaching crystallized, their reasons for teaching transcended altruism and a love for children, resulting in perspectives on caring, and a sense of responsibility for the school success of all students. The authors suggest that improved understanding about African-American prospective teachers' lived experiences that give rise to their perceptions of and purposes for teaching hold implications for teacher education and African-American teacher recruitment and retention efforts.     

A Study of Pupil Failures and Subject Failures in Chicago

Abstract

This study investigated teachers' sense of efficacy and biases in their decisions to refer students to special education. Teachers (N = 240) read a case study about a student with academic difficulties and judged the appropriateness of the student's regular class placement and whether they would refer the student. Teachers were randomly assigned to one of six conditions, in which student socioeconomic status (SES) and etiology of the learning problem were varied. Findings revealed that teachers who perceive themselves as ineffectual consider regular education inappropriate for underachieving students from low-SES families; teachers who believe that they are effective do not differentiate students by SES. Further, teachers referred students whose learning problems had an unspecified etiology more than those whose problems were medically or environmentally based. Thus, teachers' referral decisions appear to be biased by variables unrelated to the specific academic difficulties of the student.     

Predicting teacher referrals of emotionally disturbed children

The degree to which teachers' perceptions of a student can be distorted by characteristics indigenous to teachers, as well as students, were investigated to determine whether teachers would initiate a referral for special education. Sixty-five teachers volunteered for participation. Twenty-seven of them were experienced, having had their own classrooms in a public school. Thirty-eight were preservice student teachers who had not yet had their own classrooms. Teachers were evaluated to have had either an internal or external locus of control and were judged to have had either a high or low opinion of self according to either of two separate scales. After viewing two video tapes of two elementary-aged students (one student was severely emotionally disturbed [SED] and the other non-SED), teachers rated the children on several child characteristics and referral questions. Results revealed that the locus of control and self-esteem of teachers, in conjunction with teaching experience and a child's characteristics, can predict teachers' inclinations to refer children. Findings point to the need to place greater care in the initiation of referrals. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Can cooperating teachers help student teachers develop a vision of education?

Abstract

Research in teacher education is increasingly concerned with teachers' visions of education and their sense of calling, mission, and professional identity. Interviews with outstanding cooperating teachers focused on exploring their beliefs on teacher vision, and what makes a good teacher. The teachers were also asked to discuss their beliefs on whether vision—and the independence of spirit that a strong vision is thought to foster—is relevant in their work with student teachers. The teachers revealed a strong sense of why they teach and shared goals around several themes. They also maintained that reflection is key to developing a vision of education. Teacher education programs can support these teachers' views of quality education by developing conceptual frameworks that foster reflection and the development of a vision for education, particularly in the student teaching experience.     

Why do teachers refer pupils for special education? An analysis of referral records

Abstract

We studied the referral for special education records of children and youth to identify the problems for which referrers said pupils needed help. Coders examined 382 forms used by two school systems and recorded demographic information and referrers' statements describing individual pupils' difficulties. We found that (a) 69% of the referrals were for boys, (b) regular classroom teachers alone initiated 74% of the referrals and contributed to another 5%, and (c) over two‐thirds of students referred were in earlier grade levels, particularly kindergarten (16%), first (26%), second (15%), or third grade (11%). Problems most likely to be described on referral forms were general academic problems (found on 35% of referrals), reading problems (31%), and attention problems (23%) other problems such as fearfulness (2%), visual‐perceptual difficulties (1%), and depression (1%) were rarely included. Factor analysis of the referral reasons revealed five common types of referrals, some of which interacted with gender and level of students. The factors described problems in written language, externalizing behavior, internalizing behavior, overactivity, and sensory problems. The results of this study should help focus preservice and inservice preparation of teachers in addressing problems that are likely to cause pupils to be referred. In addition, combined with other findings, the results indicate regular education teachers' level of tolerance for pupils' problems.     

Sex of teacher and referral frequency of sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade children

This investigation studied whether frequency of referral for special education services was dependent upon the sex of the teacher. The referrals for special education services for sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade students of one school system were reviewed. The results indicated that male teachers referred proportionately significantly fewer students than did female teachers. Possibilities for the cause of this difference include different cultural expectations for both sex teachers and students, different abilities of male and female teachers, and the manner in which referrals are perceived by other school staff members.     

A Survey of Athletic Participation and Scholastic Achievement

Abstract

Using actual referrals, this investigation identified teachers’ specific reasons for referring students, teachers’ attributions for students’ difficulties in school settings, and whether causes are related to reasons for referral. Major findings indicated that (1) reasons for referral were consistent with previous investigations, (2) although boys were referred twice as often as girls, teachers ascribed similar causes for boys and girls, and (3) teachers’ attributions were primarily due to factors other than adequacy of instruction. Several explanations for the complexity of factors influencing teachers’ decisions to refer students are discussed.     

Teachers' and prospective teachers' explanations of liquid‐state phenomena: A comparative study involving three European countries

As contact with liquids occurs from an early stage in individuals' lives, children construct explanations for liquids and liquid‐state phenomena. These may differ from the accepted scientific explanations, interfere with formal teaching, and even persist until entry into higher education. The objective of this investigation is to compare student‐teachers' and in‐service science teachers' explanations for liquid‐state phenomena, in three European countries. Data were collected by means of a questionnaire applied to 195 Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish in‐service science teachers. Data analysis revealed poor performance among participants, showing low percentages of correct answers. In addition, no systematic differences were found between participants from the three countries, and teaching experience seems to minimize some of the conceptual difficulties showed by in‐service teachers. Globally, science education seems to have had a limited effect on student‐teachers' and in‐service science teachers' conceptions. We conclude that more attention should be paid to the liquid state in both initial and continuing teacher education programs so that teachers can understand more clearly liquid‐state phenomena and succeed in explaining them to their students. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 44: 349–374, 2007     

School deportment and student teacher sex and ethnicity

The association between office referrals and the ethnicity and sex of 20 grade 1-6 teachers and 567 (323 black, 130 white, and 114 Spanish surnamed) students was studied for two years. White teachers reported disproportionately more students and infractions, followed by Spanish surnamed and black teachers. The distribution and frequency of reported infractions were associated with teacher and student ingroup rates, rather than differential teacher x student cross-group rates: (a) i. e., disproportionately more male, then black students were reported and with greater frequency by teachers of each sex and ethnicity, respectively; however, (b) teachers' referral frequencies were moderately higher for own-ethnic and other-sex students.     

A study of practical‐moral knowledge in science teaching: Case studies in physical science classrooms

This study further extends a conceptual framework that explores science teaching as a “practice” not reducible to the application of formal knowledge, but as informed by teachers' practical‐moral knowledge. A hermeneutic model was developed to examine practical‐moral knowledge indirectly by investigating teachers' commitments, interpretations, actions, and dialectic interactions between them. The study also aimed to analyze teachers' actions in terms of their interpretations and commitments as they realize “internal goods” of their practice. Ethnographic case studies of three science teachers were conducted through classroom observation, in‐depth interviews and dialogues, and artifact analysis. A commitment of preparing students for national exams was common to the three teachers but was manifested differently in classroom practices. This commitment originated from interpretations about the duty of “good” teachers not letting students and schools down. Other emergent commitments were commitments: to conceptual understandings, to “challenge” learners, and to social modeling. We present each with associated interpretations and actions. The concepts of practical wisdom (phronesis) and gap closing are used to characterize teachers' practical knowledge and its development respectively. Implications for teacher education are discussed. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 47: 929–951, 2010     

Learning to teach in a context of education reform: liberal studies student teachers' decision‐making in lesson planning

Liberal studies is a new subject in the new senior secondary curriculum in Hong Kong. This study attempted to identify factors that shape liberal studies student teachers' decisions in lesson planning. Based on interview data and lesson plans developed by the student teachers, this article maintains that four factors interacted with the subject features of liberal studies to shape the student teachers' planning decisions, namely, teacher knowledge, curriculum requirements, materials and resources, and interaction with equal and more capable partners. This paper further looks into how teacher knowledge expresses itself at different stages of lesson planning. The findings suggest that to facilitate enquiry learning in students, liberal studies teachers need to adopt an enquiry stance in lesson planning. This paper argues that the limitations of liberal studies student teachers' content knowledge need to be addressed in teacher preparation programmes and suggests teacher networking as one way to strengthen novice liberal studies teachers' content preparation. The implications for teacher education are discussed.     

The Pedagogy of Assignments in Social Justice Teacher Education

This article examines the pedagogy of assignments in social justice teacher education programs. Employing a programmatic view, this study aims to understand the collective representation of social justice provided by assignments across multiple courses. Findings come from a qualitative case study of two social justice programs. Drawing on concepts from sociocultural theory and a theory of justice, this study reveals that the conceptions of justice assignments that were emphasized varied from a focus on the individual needs of students to an emphasis on the sociopolitical conditions of schooling. When assignments drew on teachers' field placement experiences, they overwhelmingly stressed an individualistic notion of justice. The diversity among students in teachers' placements substantially shaped teachers' opportunities to engage this notion. When assignments emphasized the sociopolitical conditions of schooling, they focused on general principles for teaching and were disconnected from teachers' field placement experiences. Implications for practice and research in social justice teacher education are considered.     

Who refers whom? The effects of teacher characteristics on disciplinary office referrals

Teachers affect a wide range of students’ educational and social outcomes, but how they contribute to students’ involvement in school discipline is less understood. We estimate the impact of same-race teachers and other observed teacher qualifications on students’ likelihood of receiving a disciplinary referral. Using data that track all disciplinary referrals and the identity of both the referred and referring individuals from a large and diverse urban school district in California, we find that Black students’ probability of receiving at least one referral is about 3 percentage points (26.6% of Black students’ base rate) smaller than for white students when they have a Black teacher versus a white teacher. The reduced likelihoods of receiving referrals from same-race teachers also convert to reduced likelihoods of being suspended. These results are mostly driven by referrals for violence, interpersonal offences, and walkout infractions, middle school students, and students from high-poverty schools. Students are also less likely to be referred by more experienced teachers and by teachers who hold either an English language learners or special education credential. While it is unclear whether these findings are due to variation in teachers’ effects on actual student behavior, variation in teachers’ proclivities to make disciplinary referrals, or a combination of the two, these results nonetheless suggest that teachers play a central role in the prevalence of, and inequities in, office referrals and subsequent student discipline.     

Speculations on teacher education: recommendations from research on teachers’ cognitions

This paper was written at the request of the Journal's editor, Professor Edgar Stones, who challenged us to translate a review of literature on teachers’ pedagogical thoughts, judgments, decisions and behavior (Shavelson and Stern, 1981) into recommendations for teacher education. We took up the challenge with some trepidation, knowing full well the pitfalls we faced in translating research into recommendations for practice. We approach our task cautiously by first discussing the assumptions underlying research on teachers’ thinking and decisions. Then, we summarize methods and findings from research on planning of instruction, judgments and decisions during recitation, and the link between decisions and behavior because they imply changes in typical teacher education programs. Finally, recommendations are made for teacher education.

We recommend that teacher educators consider adopting the decision‐making schema as a conceptual framework for organizing their programs. Such a schema implies a ‘reasonable’, professional process of making important decisions, such as selecting textbooks, grouping students, pacing work, sequencing and timing content, and changing routines during interaction. It also suggests a close correspondence between the two major components of teacher education, the foundations courses and student teaching.

Finally, we recommend that certain research methods such as process tracing, policy capturing, and stimulated recall be adapted as instructional techniques to improve the quality of instruction within foundations courses, and during supervision and feedback within the student‐teaching experience.     

Conducting Design Experiments to Support Teachers' Learning: A Reflection From the Field

This article focuses on 3 conceptual challenges that we sought to address while conducting a design experiment in which we supported the learning of a group of middle school mathematics teachers. These challenges involved (a) situating teachers' activity in the institutional setting of the schools and district in which they worked, (b) developing an interpretive framework that enabled us to document the collective learning of teacher groups, and (c) reconceptualizing the relations between teachers' activity in professional development sessions and in their classrooms. For each challenge, we describe both the initial approach that we developed while preparing for the experiment and the modifications that we found it necessary to make once the experiment was in progress. Our goal in sharing these reflections from the field is to contribute to the task of extending the design experiment methodology to investigate the learning of groups of practicing teachers rather than groups of students.     

Investigation of secondary science teachers' beliefs and practices after authentic inquiry‐based experiences

This study continues research previously conducted by a nine‐university collaborative, the Salish I Research Project, by exploring science teachers' beliefs and practices with regard to inquiry‐oriented instruction. In this study, we analyzed the relationship among secondary science teachers' preparation, their beliefs, and their classroom practices after completion of a course designed to provide authentic inquiry experiences. From Teacher Pedagogical Philosophy Interview data and Secondary Science Teacher Analysis Matrix observational data, we analyzed links between the teachers' conveyed beliefs and observed practice regarding the teachers' actions (TA) and students' actions (SA). Also presented is a listing of teachers' perceived influences from university preparation course work. Results indicated that 7 of the 8 teachers professed a belief in teacher‐centered or conceptual style with regard to TA and SA. The observational results indicated that 7 of the 8 teachers displayed a teacher‐centered or conceptual style with regard to TA and SA. Inconsistencies between interview and observational data were unexpected, as half of the teachers professed slightly greater teacher‐centered styles with regard to TA than what they actually practiced in their classrooms. All teachers reported that an inquiry‐based science course was valuable. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 43: 938–962, 2006     

Content knowledge transformation: An examination of the relationship between content knowledge and curricula

Theories associated with teacher knowledge suggest that teachers transform subject content knowledge into pedagogical content knowledge in teaching to enhance the content comprehensibility. It is assumed that the connection between teacher content knowledge and curriculum is characterized by the content knowledge transformation. This study, using an interpretive research method combined with cognitive knowledge elicitation and mapping approaches, examined the subject-pedagogical content knowledge transformation process that was associated with the teachers' curricular decision-making in secondary physical education. Findings indicated that the teachers shared a common subject content knowledge base but demonstrated a personalized pedagogical content knowledge repertoire, suggesting that the teachers' pedagogical content knowledge was personally constructed even though they shared a subject content knowledge base. The classroom curriculum was closely connected to the pedagogical content knowledge base. In addition, the teachers' curricular decisions regarding content inclusion/exclusion were primarily based on their perceptions of student learning abilities. The findings may imply that enhancement of prospective teachers' pedagogical content knowledge should be emphasized in teacher preparation programs because it serves as a bridge linking the subject content knowledge with the curriculum delivered in classrooms.     

Effects of formal teacher education upon student teachers' cognitions regarding teaching

This study considered the issue of the effectiveness of formal teacher education upon student teachers' conceptual repertoires concerning teaching. Two main constructs were employed —dimensions of teaching and types of knowledge drawn upon in making decisions about teaching. The effects of practice teaching, curriculum and instruction patterns, and stage in program upon dimensions of teaching and types of knowledge are reported. It was concluded that formal teacher education experiences did have significant effects upon the cognitive development of the student teachers involved.