A Reinvented Union: A Concern for Teaching, Not Just Teachers

The current school reform movement, with its emphasis on teacher professionalism, teacher empowerment, and shared decision making, has challenged teachers unions to develop more collegial relations with school boards. Bob Chase, president of the National Education Association, has called for the union to reinvent itself and to assume responsibility for improving school quality and the quality of the teaching force. This article discusses the development of teachers unions in the 1960s as adversaries of school boards. From the beginning the unions adopted an industrial model of labor relations, one tailored for factories and assembly lines rather than school environments. Today, there are signs that teachers unions are accepting Bob Chases vision of a more professional union, one in which union leaders and school leaders can become public allies in the struggle to improve schools.     

‘‘O Bottom,Thou Art Translated’’: Directing a Bilingual <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dream</Emphasis> in the Marshall Islands

A unique production of Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream was staged in early 2004 by students of the Marshall Islands High School, Majuro, in the Central Pacific. The plays director, Andrew Garrod, describes the rehearsal process and performance of the play, in which the school students were supported by undergraduates from the Education Department of Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, spending a term teaching in the islands schools. The nature and worth of the learning experienced by the young actors, and their community, are considered in a context where Shakespeare and any kind of dramatic production are little known.     

From Conant's Education Strategy to Kuhn's Research Strategy

The seminal influence of Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions on the history, philosophy, and sociology of science illustrates how changes in pedagogical demands can significantly alter patterns of research. Kuhn's book was honed as a teacher in the General Education of Science curriculum designed by Harvard President James Bryant Conant, to whom Structure is dedicated. The courses targeted non-scientists who would have to make policy decisions in the dawning Atomic Age, where science would play an increasing role, despite the public skepticism generated by the atomic bomb (which Conant administered). Conant wanted these future policymakers to be connoisseurs of science who understood problematic Big Science as continuing the basic mindset of culturally valued Little Science. This partly explains why Kuhn presented science as following the same stages, regardless of the specific science and period under discussion. I consider three other senses in Conant's curriculum left its imprint on Kuhn's research practice: the use of case histories to manufacture the internal/external history distinction; the invention of the historiographical mirage known as normal science; the application of the incommensurability thesis to create a more receptive attitude to past scientists.     

The cultural grid: A framework for multicultural counseling

The Cultural Grid suggests a structure for interpreting a person's behavior in the context of culturally learned expectations. When two persons' expectations are similar, but their behaviors are dissimilar, cross cultural misunderstanding is likely to result. When their expectations are dissimilar, the result is likely to be a personal misunderstanding even though their behaviors are similar. This article introduces a framework for differentiating personal and cultural differences in the interview which is essential for appropriate multicultural counseling. The alternatives are to allow apparent and obvious cultural differences to mask underlying personal differences or to incorrectly assume that two persons who appear culturally similar are having a personal disagreement.     

Sensing the Impact of Elementary School Science Reform: A Study of Stakeholder Perceptions of Implementation,Constructivist Strategies,and School–Home Collaboration

This case study of a midwestern school districts reform effort explored the treatment fidelity of the Science: Parents, Activities, and Literature (Science PALs) project. Data were collected from the perspectives of three stakeholders: students, school district, and parents. Students and school district supervisors perceptions indicated that teachers were implementing predicted curricular and instructional features promoted by the Science PALs project. Students perceptions of their current teachers classroom performance did not parallel the supervisors perceptions of the teachers implementation. Parents perceptions and comments indicated a high level of satisfaction with the implemented features. Collectively, the three perspectives suggest that the Science PALs project was successful in changing the classroom practices of K–6 teachers involved in the professional development. The results of this study appear to support the findings of other recent studies that indicate the need for extended professional development and support to fully implement changes in elementary school science instruction.     

Being there: Social service and teacher education at the University of Houston

As the school-age population grows in its ethnic and economic diversity, those who become teachers remain overwhelmingly white, female, and middle class. To assist teacher education students understand a world that is largely unfamiliar to them, the University of Houston teacher preparation program offers a volunteer experience in an urban social service agency for its students as part of a cultural awareness requirement. The results of this program suggest that it may help preservice teachers to understand better the lives of the children they will face and hence better prepare them to teach, perhaps diminishing the revolving door of teachers in urban classrooms.Kip Téllez received his Ph.D. from The Claremont Graduate School in 1991. He is currently Assistant Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Houston. His present academic interests include the reexamination of pragmatism, teacher education, and Latino youth gangs. Peter S. Hlebowitsh received his Ed.D. from the Rutgers Graduate School of Education. He is currently Assistant Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Houston. His present scholarly interests are in curriculum theory, curriculum history, and teacher education.     

Teacher Appraisal in Hong Kong Self-Managing Secondary Schools: Factors for Effective Practices

The two most important purposes of appraisal in schools are teacher improvement and personnel decision making, which are often referred to as formative and summative purposes, respectively. Staff appraisal was introduced to Hong Kong secondary schools participating in the School Management Initiative scheme. These schools have adopted a school management system based on the principles of self-managing schools. Data on appraisal systems as well as teachers recent experiences of appraisal were collected in a survey. This study has found that the overall perceived effectiveness of an appraisal system is related to both its formative and summative outcomes. The formative outcomes for teachers are associated with teachers attitudes to the formative purposes of appraisal, the appraisal procedure, and most important, the nature and quality of feedback received. The study has also found that summative outcomes and formative outcomes are interrelated.     

Transferring schema or transforming cultures?

Wassell and LaVan (this issue) make strong arguments about the value of coteaching as a model for learning to teach. This response paper draws upon recent sociocultural conceptualizations of human nature and development as a process of contribution and shared contribution to extend Wassell and LaVan’s findings about teacher learning and to further illuminate evidence of the transformative potential of coteaching. It is argued that the beginning teachers in Wassell and LaVan’s study appropriated the cultural practices, and ontological and epistemological stances of coteaching and used these perspectives and practices to transform the cultures of their in-service classrooms as well as the roles and epistemic perspectives of their students.

The impact of scienceware and foundations on students' attitudes towards science and science classes

In this paper, we describe changes in students' ideas about science classes, attitudes about science, and motivations for studying science, in a classroom designed to support projectbased science learing. Using a survey designed to provide a measure of students' attitudes towards science classes and science, we have compared students enrolled in a traditional high school biology course, with students enrolled in an integrated, project-based science course called Foundations I. Survey responses were analyzed to look at differences between and within two groups of students over the course of one school year. In general, the results of this study suggest that providing students with opportunities to collect and analyze their own data in science classes results in a change in students' ideas about science classrooms. Foundations I students' increased tendency to agree with statements about using information, drawing conclusions, and thinking about problems, implies a change in their understanding of what it means to do science in school. These students, in contrast to students in the traditional Biology course, no longer describe their science experience as one of memorization, textbook reading, and test taking. Instead they see science class as a place in which they can collect data, draw conclusions, and formulate and solve problems.     

Psychometrics of Praxis III: Classroom Performance Assessments

The article describes the Praxis III assessment, an observation-based system for assessing the skills of beginning teachers that emphasizes teacher decision-making and the importance of student, school, and curricular context. The article also describes the principles and process of the assessments design and construction, including the underlying conception of teaching, how this construct was operationalized, and how assessment criteria were developed. Additional issues in teacher performance assessments, including whether such assessments should reflect current practice or lead it, the balance between assessment of practical and theoretical knowledge, and the role of assessor judgment, are discussed.     

Collaborative action research on the learning and teaching of algebra: a story of one mathematics teacher's development

This paper presents the story of a mathematics teacher's transformation that resulted from her engagement in collaborative action research. The collaborative research, conducted by a university mathematics educator and an eighth-grade mathematics teacher (Marylin), centered on investigating the outcomes of implementing a Hands-On Equations approach to teaching algebra. This algebraic study, which is briefly reported herein, serves as a vehicle for examining the questions, reflections, and changes brought forth by Marylin throughout the collaborative process. Thus, the project of investigating the teaching and learning of algebra can be viewed as the sub-study within the broader study of the effects of collaborative action research on the mathematics teacher involved in the investigation. Within this paper, issues related to the broader study of collaborative action research in the mathematics classroom, that are connected to Marylin's transformation, are discussed. These issues include the characterization of and goals for collaborative action research as well as the challenges for collaborative action research in mathematics classrooms.This revised version was published online in September 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A sociocultural analysis of the development of pre-service and beginning teachers’ pedagogical identities as users of technology

This paper reports on a study that investigated the pedagogical practices and beliefs of pre-service and beginning teachers in integrating technology into the teaching of secondary school mathematics. A case study documents how one teachers modes of working with technology changed over time and across different school contexts, and identifies relationships between a range of personal and contextual factors that influenced the development of his identity as a teacher. This analysis views teachers learning as increasing participation in sociocultural practices, and uses Valsiners concepts of the Zone of Proximal Development, Zone of Free Movement, and Zone of Promoted Action to offer a dynamic way of theorising teacher learning as identity formation.     

The decline of teacher autonomy: Tears or cheers?

In the United States teacher autonomy has been declining for at least a decade. This decline can be attributed in large part to three factors. First, uniform staff development programmes based on research on effective teaching have become widespread. Second, classroom observations have become an integral part of imposed teacher evaluations. Third, school principals have been called on to assume the role of instructional leader. While some may perceive the decline of teacher autonomy negatively, at least two benefits of this decline have been identified. First, a common language by which teachers can discuss the problems and potential of instruction and teaching among themselves and with school administrators is developing. Second, the likelihood that teachers will achieve a truly professional status is enhanced. Many educators write as if the natural result of a decline in teacher autonomy is standardization; that is, the cloning of teachers. This article negates such pessimism. Teacher autonomy, like many educational variables, exists along a continuum. As a consequence, a midpoint on the autonomy continuum — a balance between uniqueness and standardization, between license and responsibility — is the desirable state of affairs. Finally, autonomy should be earned by teachers, not simply given to them. In this regard, greater concern should be given to teachers' preparation for, and induction into, their roles as school teachers. Similarly, increases in autonomy should mirror increases in teacher status; status defined in terms of teacher experience, expertise, and excellence.

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Zusammenfassung In den Vereinigten Staaten ist die Autonomie der Lehrer im letzten Jahrzehnt gesunken. Drei Faktoren sind die hauptsächlichen Ursachen dafür: Erstens sind einheitliche, auf Untersuchungen über wirksame Unterrichtsmethoden basierende Personalentwicklungsprogramme derzeit weit verbreitet. Zweitens sind Beobachtungen im Klassenzimmer zu einem integralen Bestandteil vorgeschriebener Lehrerbeurteilungen geworden. Drittens sind die Schulleiter aufgefordert worden, die Rolle der Unterrichtsanleiter (instructional leader) zu übernehmen. Während einerseits die zunehmend eingeschränkte Autonomie der Lehrer negativ beurteilt wird, lassen sich zumindestens zwei Vorteile aus dieser Minderung ableiten. Erstens wird eine gemeinsame Sprache entwickelt, in der Lehrer über die Probleme und das Potential der Lehre und des Unterrichts miteinander und/oder mit den Schulverwaltern kommunizieren können. Zweitens verstärkt sich die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß Lehrer einen wirklich professionellen Status erreichen. Viele Pädagogen schreiben, als ob die natürliche Folge einer verminderten Autonomie der Leher eine Standardisierung bedeute, d.h. das Klonen von Lehrern. Dieser Artikel verneint einen solchen Pessimismus. Wie viele andere pädagogischen Variablen besteht die Autonomie der Lehrer in einem Kontinuum. Folglich ist der wünschenswerte Zustand in Form eines Mittelwerts des Autonomiekontinuums — d.h. eine Balance zwischen Einzigartigkeit und Standardisierung, zwischen Lehrfreiheit und Verantwortung. Ferner sollten sich Lehrer ihre Autonomie verdienen, anstatt daß sie ihnen automatisch übertragen wird. In diesem Sinne sollte der Lehrervorbereitung und deren Einführung in die Rolle des Schullehrers ein größeres Gewicht beigemessen werden. Ebenso sollte sich der Zuwachs an Autonomie in einem Anwachsen des Lehrerstatus wiederspiegeln. Status ist hier zu verstehen im Sinne von Lehrererfahrung, Sachverständigkeit und Vortrefflichkeit.

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Résumé L'autonomie de l'enseignant aux Etats Unis va en déclinant depuis dix ans au moins. Ce déclin peut être attribué en grande partie à trois facteurs. Tout d'abord, les programmes de développement d'un personnel uniforme basés sur la recherche relative à l'efficacité de l'enseignement se sont répandus. Puis, les observations de classes font à présent partie intégrante des évaluations globales des enseignants. Enfin on a demandé aux directeurs d'assumer le rôle de responsables en matière d'instruction. Alors que certains perçoivent de façon négative la restriction de l'autonomie de l'enseignant, deux avantages au moins ont été identifiés. Premièrement, la langue commune avec laquelle les enseignants peuvent discuter des problèmes et du potentiel de l'instruction et de l'enseignement entre eux ainsi qu'avec le personnel administratif connaît un développement. Deuxièmement, les chances d'obtenir un vrai statut professionel sont renforcées pour les enseignants. De nombreux enseignants écrivent comme si le résultat naturel d'une perte d'autonomie de l'enseignant signifiait une standardisation, c'est-à-dire une reproduction exacte de la même espèce. Cet article réfute un tel pessimisme. L'autonomie de l'enseignant suit un continuum, comme de nombreuses variables éducatives du reste. En conséquence, le point central du continuum d'autonomie — l'équilibre entre le caractère unique et la standardisation, entre l'autorisation et la responsabilité — est une situation souhaitable. Enfin, l'autonomie devrait être acquise par les enseignants, et non leur être simplement offerte. A ce propos, un plus grand intérêt devrait être accordé à la formation des enseignants, à leur entrée dans leur rôle d'instructeur. Parallèlement, une croissance de l'autonomie devrait refléter une amélioration du statut de l'enseignant, statut défini en termes d'expérience en matière d'enseignement, de compétences et de perfection.

     

Roos and José, two children in a mixed ability group

One of the purposes of the Dutch research project Mixed ability groups in mathematics education 12–16 (S.V.O. 0647) is to support the mathematics department of the S.L.O., foundation for curriculum development, in the development of a mathematics for all curriculum. Two booklets on graphs are partially evaluated by pre- and posttests, interviews and classroom observations in a comprehensive school. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of observations and tests show considerable progress in most of the children. This progress is most pronounced in children with a low score on their pretest.

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Gender-group differences in the learning behaviour of entering first-year university students

This study explores the existence of structural gender differences in the learning behaviour of first-year students on entry to university, based on responses to an extended form of the Approaches to Studying Inventory. The focus is on underlying dimensions of variation, that distinguish between the manner in which male and female students recalled and reported on their most recent experience of studying Science in their final secondary school year. Such differences as emerge are only partially interperatble in terms of classic deep or strategic structures. It is argued that gender-sensitive sources of variation, as manifested, are worth of further investigation and are of potential strategic value to university departments insofar as they are able to locate difficulties that students bring with them early in their undergraduate studies.     

Teaching Linear Functions in Context with Graphics Calculators: Students’ Responses and the Impact of the Approach on Their Use of Algebraic Symbols

This study analyses some of the consequences of adopting a functional/modelling approach to the teaching of algebra. The teaching of one class of 17 students was observed over five weeks, with 15 students undertaking both pre- and post-tests and 6 students and the teacher being interviewed individually. Use of graphics calculators made the predominantly graphical approach feasible. Students made considerable progress in describing linear relationships algebraically. They commented favourably on several aspects of learning concepts through problems in real contexts and were able to set up equations to solve contextualised problems. Three features of the program exerted a triple influence on students use and understanding of algebraic symbols. Students concern to express features of the context was evident in some responses, as was the influence of particular contexts selected. Use of graphics calculators affected some students choice of letters. The functional approach was evident in the meanings ascribed to letters and rules. Students were very positively disposed to the calculators, and interesting differences were observed between the confidence with which they asked questions about the technology and the diffidence with which they asked mathematical questions. Kaye Stacey: Author for correspondence.     

Coming to Grips with Radical Social Constructivisms

This essay distinguishes two broad groups - psychological constructivists and social constructivists - but focusses upon the second of these, although it is stressed that there is great within group variation. More than half of the paper is devoted to general clearing of the ground, during which the reasons for the growing acrimony in the debates between social constructivists and their opponents are assessed, an important consequence of these debates for education is discussed, and an examination is carried out of the radical social constructivist tendency to make strong and exciting but untenable claims which are then backed away from (a tendency which is documented by a close reading of the early pages in Bloors classic book). The last portion of the essay focuses upon social constructivist accounts of the causes of belief in science - the more radical of which denegrate the role of warranting reasons, and which give an exalted place to quasi-anthropological or sociological studies of scientific communities.     

Putting Thought in Accordance with Things: The Demise of Animal-Based Analogies for Plant Functions

Scientists' attempts to understand plant functions by ascribing animal functions to plants – the analogist tradition, derived from Aristotle – began to be superseded in Europe by an experimentalist tradition in the seventeenth century. In classrooms today, science students learning about plant functions (exemplified here by the topic of transpiration) face a parallel dilemma: the pitching of their own habitual mental processes of analogy building (enhanced by the suggestive morphology of plants)and the persuasiveness of everyday language (for example, about plants and water)against the new experimental evidence presented by the teacher. In the case oftranspiration, six practical suggestions whereby teachers can support students in thisstruggle to put their thoughts (especially everyday mental models) in accordance withthings (classroom experimental evidence) are advanced. The wider implications forhow we teach about Living Things, and how we view the status of analogies in sciencegenerally, are discussed.     

Jamaica's work-experience programme

Conclusion This article has sought to highlight a work-experience programme in a Third World country, pin-pointing the factors that militate against the achievement of its desired objectives. Among such factors are problems associated with curriculum organization at the secondary level, not least the negative attitudes that the society generally has towards a practical curriculum. Inadequate funding, largely due to governments aloofness, against a background of pressure on schools to become more selfreliant; wastage of human resources in relation to programme organization; and the lack of effective communication both within the school system and between the school and the community generally-all these are proving to be constraints on the achievement of objectives. Our discussion lends support to Sinclair's (1977) observation, referred to earlier, that Third World countries lack the institutional framework for conducting real-world assignments by pupils in factories and offices. Before curriculum innovations like the WEP can have the desired effects, Third World countries will not only have to deal constructively with negative attitudes and values in relation to practical and manual labour, but they will also have to find ways of initiating employment-generating strategies, so that students who have been prepared for the world of work will have the opportunity to enjoy the right to work. In Third World countries like Jamaica, which are caught in the grip of political and social strife exacerbated by a vicious economic squeeze, these are gulfs which seem too wide to breach at present.     

State Testing and Inquiry-Based Science: Are They Complementary or Competing Reforms?

The effect of district strategies for improving high-stakes test scores on science teachers practice is explored in case studies of six middle schools in six Massachusetts districts. At each school, science teachers, curriculum coordinators, principals, and superintendents shared their strategies for raising scores, their attitudes towards the test, the changes that they were implementing in their curriculum and pedagogical approaches, and the effects that the test was having on staff and on students. Results from these case studies suggest that districts chose markedly different strategies for raising scores on high stakes tests, and that the approaches taken by districts influenced the nature of pedagogical and curriculum changes in the classroom. District strategies for raising scores that were complementary to the districts prior vision of science reform tended to cause less teacher resentment towards the test than strategies that departed from previously adopted goals. Differing effects on teachers in socio-economically advantaged, middle, and challenged districts are discussed.