Behavioral self-regulation and executive function both predict visuomotor skills and early academic achievement

The present study explored direct and interactive effects between behavioral self-regulation (SR) and two measures of executive function (EF, inhibitory control and working memory), with a fine motor measure tapping visuomotor skills (VMS) in a sample of 127 prekindergarten and kindergarten children. It also examined the relative contribution of behavioral SR, EF, and VMS skills for concurrent academic achievement. Results indicated that a measure of working memory (WJ-Working Memory) and a measure of behavioral SR (Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task; HTKS) were directly related to VMS. Differential relations were also examined for prekindergarten and kindergarten children. Results revealed a significant interaction between age and inhibitory control (Day–Night), and an interaction at a trend level between age and working memory suggesting both tasks are more related to VMS skills for younger children. Results also indicated that behavioral SR, EF, and VMS skills were differentially related to the three achievement outcomes. Both behavioral SR and VMS were significantly related to math, behavioral SR, EF, and VMS were significantly related to emergent literacy, and behavioral SR and EF were related to vocabulary scores. Results point to significant relations between behavioral SR and EF with VMS, and how each is related to early academic achievement in preschool and kindergarten.     

Matthew effects in reading and mathematics: Examining developmental patterns in population data

This study examined whether Matthew effects were evident in developmental patterns of reading and mathematics skills from middle childhood to adolescence. We obtained standardized reading and mathematics scores at Grades 3, 5, 7 and 9 for full cohorts of students in two Australian states, NSW (N = 88,958, 48% female) and Victoria (N = 65,984, 49% female). Latent growth curve models were used to identify the best-fitting longitudinal trajectories of reading and mathematics, and to examine whether cumulative (i.e. a Matthew effect), compensatory, or stable interindividual differences characterized development in each domain. For both reading and mathematics, and in both samples, growth decelerated as grade levels increased, with latent basis models fitting the data better than linear models. Negative intercept-slope covariances, and decreasing variances at increasing grades in both domains indicated compensatory growth patterns, rather than cumulative patterns or Matthew effects. These results indicate that students with below average achievement at Grade 3 make greater gains to Grade 9 than their initially higher-achieving peers. Modeling growth trajectories in two longitudinal population datasets allows strong tests of theorized growth patterns for both reading and mathematics, and presents insights about developmental change in academic skills from middle childhood to adolescence.     

Attentional and executive function behaviours in children with poor working memory

The purpose of this study was to explore the profiles of classroom behaviour relating to attention and executive functions in children with very poor working memory, and to test the hypothesis that inattentive behaviour and working memory problems co-occur. Teachers rated problem behaviours of 52 children with low working memory scores aged 5/6 and 9/10 years on teacher rating measures of attention and executive function behaviours. The majority of children with low working memory scores obtained atypically high ratings of cognitive problems/ inattentive symptoms, and were judged to have short attention spans, high levels of distractibility, problems in monitoring the quality of their work, and difficulties in generating new solutions to problems. These results extend previous findings that working memory problems and inattentive behaviour co-occur to a non-clinical sample. It is suggested that reduced working memory capacity may play a causal role in the problem behaviours of these children.     

Relations between mathematics achievement growth and the development of mathematics self-concept in elementary and middle grades

Creating an educational program that results in positive science, technology, engineering, and mathematics or STEM-oriented outcomes for all students is an important education objective and federal policy directive in the United States. In addition to developing strong mathematics foundations in Grades K–8 that are closely associated with successful STEM outcomes, intrapersonal skill development is also critical to academic and postsecondary success. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 the current study applied structural equation growth modeling to examine relationships among mathematics achievement in Grades K–1 and Grades 3–8, and mathematics self-concept development across Grades 3–8. Study results revealed that students reported declining levels of mathematics self-concept across the middle grades. Importantly, third grade reports of self-concept were associated with both mathematics achievement at kindergarten entry and third grade mathematics achievement; however, mathematics achievement at kindergarten entry was also associated with the development of mathematics self-concept in third through eighth grade. In addition, after accounting for mathematics achievement in Grades K–1, mathematics achievement growth in Grades 3–8 was directly associated with mathematics self-concept development across the same time period. Implications for future research, mathematics instruction, and curriculum development are discussed.     

Associations between classroom quality and children's vocabulary and executive function skills in an urban public prekindergarten program

Despite evidence that high-quality preschool programs have substantial, long-lasting impacts on young children's developmental outcomes, associations between preschool quality measures and children's cognitive outcomes within preschool programs are generally small or null. Using data from a large urban prekindergarten program, we examined associations between children's receptive vocabulary and executive function skills and several indicators of classroom quality. Ours is the first such study within a program that has been shown to have small-to-large causal impacts on children's language, literacy, mathematics, executive function, and emotional development outcomes. Consistent with prior literature, we found small or null associations between quality predictors and children's outcomes and we found that some of these relationships were curvilinear. Findings are discussed in light of several hypotheses in the literature regarding the general pattern of small or null associations, including the psychometrics of commonly used quality measures and possible range restriction of quality indicators.     

Executive function mediates socio-economic and racial differences in early academic achievement

Although associations between socio-economic status, race, and academic achievement are well established, the specific mechanisms that underlie the relation remain incompletely understood. This longitudinal investigation, involving a sample of 206 children from economically and racially diverse backgrounds, examined the influence of executive function and expressive vocabulary assessed in kindergarten on academic achievement in Grade 1. The use of structural equation modeling revealed that both SES and race had indirect effects on achievement test scores through their effects on executive function, even when accounting for differences in expressive vocabulary. As expected, executive function was more strongly related to math than literacy achievement. The results provide support for the importance of targeting executive skills and intervening early in efforts to improve academic performance in young children. Moreover, the findings suggest that improving executive function may mitigate the impact of social risk factors on academic achievement.     

Estimating the co-development of executive functions and math achievement throughout the elementary grades using a cross-lagged panel model with fixed effects

Executive functioning (EF) is associated with children’s math skill development, both concurrently and longitudinally. However, it is not known how components of EF might be related to mathematics skills and vice versa over the course of elementary school. The present study addresses this issue by investigating relations between math achievement and two key components of EF -- working memory (WM) and cognitive flexibility (CF) -- from kindergarten to 5th grade, using the large-scale nationally representative dataset (N = 18,174) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten (ECLS-K: 2011). Results from cross-lagged panel models with fixed effects support a transactional theoretical model, demonstrating a long-term reciprocal relationship between WM and math achievement from kindergarten to 5th grade and between CF and math achievement from 2nd grade to 5th grade. However, we found that reciprocal relations decrease as children grow older, suggesting that their math achievement relies less on EF and more on prior math knowledge over time.     

The development of executive functioning across the transition to first grade and its predictive value for academic achievement

Executive functions (EFs), used to guide goal-directed behavior, are essential for adequate classroom functioning. The current study aims to, (1) examine development and stability of three core EFs (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility) across the transition to first grade; and (2) investigate the relationship of EFs with academic achievement, taking into account their multidimensionality and interconnections. EF tasks were administered at the end of kindergarten and first grade (n = 89) and standardized achievement tests at the end of first grade. Results indicate moderate to large growth and stability in working memory and cognitive flexibility and small improvements and stability in inhibition. Working memory predicted academic achievement, cognitive flexibility had a limited role and no additional contribution of inhibition was found. The current study suggests that the transitional period to first grade can be an important period to promote EF development, which in turn can support the prevention of later school problems.     

Investigating curricular effect on the teaching and learning of mathematics in a cultural context: Theoretical and methodological considerations

This first article of the special issue presents theoretical and methodological considerations about longitudinally investigating curricular effects on the teaching and learning of mathematics in a cultural context. In particular, in this article, we discuss seven issues related to the investigation of curricular effects on the teaching and learning of mathematics: (1) the need to investigate longitudinally the effects of curriculum, (2) the nature of the reform and non-reform curricula, (3) multiple representations of curriculum use, (4) assessment of classroom instruction, (5) student diversity and achievement gaps, (6) multiple measures of student mathematics achievement, and (7) multi-level analysis of student achievement data. This article not only serves as an introduction to the special issue, but most importantly, also provides a theoretical and methodological context for the two longitudinal projects.     

The contributions of ‘hot’ and ‘cool’ executive function to children's academic achievement, learning-related behaviors, and engagement in kindergarten

Executive functioning (EF) refers to higher order thought processes considered foundational for problem-solving. EF has both ‘cool’ cognitive and ‘hot’ emotional components. This study asks: (a) what are the relative contributions of ‘hot’ and ‘cool’ EF to children's academic achievement? (b) What are the relative contributions of ‘hot’ and ‘cool’ EF to learning-related classroom behaviors and observed engagement? (c) Do learning-related classroom behaviors and observed engagement account for the relation between EF and achievement? For a sample of 173 kindergarteners, cool EF predicted math achievement, learning-related classroom behaviors, and observed engagement. Hot EF did not predict any achievement or behavior outcomes when examined concurrently with cool EF. Children's classroom behavior did not account for the relation between cool EF and math achievement, suggesting cool EF and math performance are directly associated.     

Mixed feelings: Profiles of emotions among elementary mathematics students and how they function within a control-value framework

Mixed feelings happen in and outside of the classroom; yet prior research has focused on discrete emotions, essentially ignoring the interaction between emotions. We extend prior person-centered studies of achievement emotions by placing emotions within the Control-Value Theory framework to examine how patterns of emotions mediate the relation between motivation and achievement. We found four profiles of emotion in both fourth (n = 5228) and fifth graders (n = 5299)—two positive profiles, a negative profile, and a mixed emotions profile where frustrated and challenged were the primary emotions. All profiles mediated the relationship between math expectancy and achievement. However, only three of the four emotion profiles mediated the relation between math value and achievement.     

Child maltreatment and emotion socialization: Associations with executive function in the preschool years

This study examined executive function (EF) among preschoolers exposed to maltreatment, and tested whether caregiver practices related to emotion socialization (e.g., reactions to children’s emotions; discussion of emotion) moderate the relationship between maltreatment and EF in this period. Participants were (n = 107) children aged 4–5 years (M = 4.75; SD = 0.57; 39% female), with various levels of exposure to maltreatment. Using the Maltreatment Classification System, substantiated reports of maltreatment were coded to produce an index of the multiplicity of abuse subtypes to which children had been exposed. EF was indexed using a composite of scores on three performance-based tests (Happy–Sad Stroop Task; Tapping Test; Dimensional Change Card Sort). Caregivers reported on their use of emotion related socialization behaviors (ERSBs) with the Coping with Children’s Negative Emotions Scale. Exposure to maltreatment and ERSBs were both found to account for unique variance in EF, independent of developmental-ecological factors including children’s receptive language and maternal depression. Significant interactions between maltreatment and ERSBs were also found to suggest that nonsupportive ERSBs (e.g., punitive reactions to negative child emotion) may amplify the risk for poor EF associated with maltreatment, whereas supportive ERPBs (e.g., expressive encouragement) protect against it.     

Executive function and verbal self-regulation in childhood: Developmental linkages between partially internalized private speech and cognitive flexibility

Recent studies have noted that executive function and the use of self-regulatory private speech are related in childhood, and proposed that the critical leap that occurs in the development of executive function between the ages of three and six years may be due to the onset of language-based self-regulatory functions at this age. This research explored the relationship between executive function and private speech in a cross-sectional study of 81 children between four and seven years of age. The children performed an executive function task, the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), and children's use of private speech was observed during a categorization task. The results indicated that, after controlling for children's age, gender, verbal abilities, and fluid reasoning, children's use of partially internalized private speech during the categorization task was significantly related to the number of phases successfully passed on the DCCS task, which required them to switch between card sorting rules. Children who used more partially internalized private speech were more likely to pass the most challenging phase of the DCCS task that assesses the ability to flexibly use different sorting rules according to a higher-order rule. We discuss the role of verbal mediation in the development of cognitive flexibility and its implications for the design of intervention programs for children who possess deficits of executive function.     

Mathematics anxiety in young children: Concurrent and longitudinal associations with mathematical performance

This study explored mathematics anxiety in a longitudinal sample of 113 children followed from second to third grade. We examined how mathematics anxiety related to different types of mathematical performance concurrently and longitudinally and whether the relations between mathematics anxiety and mathematical performance differed as a function of working memory. Concurrent analyses indicated that mathematics anxiety represents a unique source of individual differences in children’s calculation skills and mathematical applications, but not in children’s geometric reasoning. Furthermore, we found that higher levels of mathematics anxiety in second grade predicted lower gains in children’s mathematical applications between second and third grade, but only for children with higher levels of working memory. Overall, our results indicate that mathematics anxiety is an important construct to consider when examining sources of individual differences in young children’s mathematical performance. Furthermore, our findings suggest that mathematics anxiety may affect how some children use working memory resources to learn mathematical applications.     

Working memory and mathematics in primary school children: A meta-analysis

Working memory, including central executive functions (inhibition, shifting and updating) are factors thought to play a central role in mathematical skill development. However, results reported with regard to the associations between mathematics and working memory components are inconsistent. The aim of this meta-analysis is twofold: to investigate the strength of this relation, and to establish whether the variation in the association is caused by tests, sample characteristics and study and other methodological characteristics. Results indicate that all working memory components are associated with mathematical performance, with the highest correlation between mathematics and verbal updating. Variation in the strength of the associations can consistently be explained by the type of mathematics measure used: general tests yield stronger correlations than more specific tests. Furthermore, characteristics of working memory measures, age and sample explain variance in correlations in some analyses. Interpretations of the contribution of moderator variables to various models are discussed.     

Theory of mind,attention, and executive function in kindergarten boys

The present study explored the relationship between theory of mind (ToM), attention, and executive function in 66 kindergarten boys drawn from four rural school districts. Three stories designed to test understanding of first and second order mental states were administered. Executive function and attention were assessed, respectively, by scores on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and the Behavior Assessment Scales for Children, Second Edition (BASC‐2). Analyses indicated that children identified by teachers as evidencing attention difficulties scored lower on false belief measures and were more likely to be identified as exhibiting behavioral difficulties associated with executive dysfunction than children identified as evidencing fewer attention difficulties. Attention and executive function were predictive of total ToM scores.     

Differential relationships between RAN performance,behaviour ratings,and executive function measures: Searching for a double dissociation

Abstract. In this study, we investigated the relationships between rapid naming of letters, digits and colours, and reading ability and executive function. We gave fifty-six grade three and four children rapid automatised naming tasks using letters and digits as stimuli, executive function measures including the Stroop task, a working memory task and the Trailmaking B task. The latter three tasks were used as measures of executive function. We also administered tests of verbal ability, reading and a behaviour checklist. The rapid naming of letters and digits was significantly correlated with reading, but not with executive function or behaviour ratings. The rapid naming of colours (from the Stroop task) was significantly correlated with the executive function tasks and the behaviour ratings but not with reading. We discuss the implications of this double dissociation for further studies of RAN.     

Effects of fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance

Reading disability (RD) typically consists of deficits in word reading accuracy and/or reading comprehension. While it is well known that word reading accuracy deficits lead to comprehension deficits (general reading disability, GRD), less is understood about neuropsychological profiles of children who exhibit adequate word reading accuracy but nevertheless develop specific reading comprehension deficits (S-RCD). Establishing the underlying neuropsychological processes associated with different RD types is essential for ultimately understanding core neurobiological bases of reading comprehension. To this end, the present study investigated isolated and contextual word fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance in 56 9- to 14-year-old children [21 typically developing (TD), 18 GRD, and 17 S-RCD]. Results indicated that TD and S-RCD participants read isolated words at a faster rate than participants with GRD; however, both RD groups had contextual word fluency and oral language weaknesses. Additionally, S-RCD participants showed prominent weaknesses in executive function. Implications for understanding the neuropsychological bases for reading comprehension are discussed.