Validating English Language Proficiency Assessment Uses for English Learners: Academic Language Proficiency and Content Assessment Performance

States use standards‐based English language proficiency (ELP) assessments to inform relatively high‐stakes decisions for English learner (EL) students. Results from these assessments are one of the primary criteria used to determine EL students’ level of ELP and readiness for reclassification. The results are also used to evaluate the effectiveness of and funding allocation to district or school programs that serve EL students. In an effort to provide empirical validity evidence for such important uses of ELP assessments, this study focused on examining the constructs of ELP assessments as a fundamental validity issue. Particularly, the study examined the types of language proficiency measured in three sample states’ ELP assessments and the relationship between each type of language proficiency and content assessment performance. The results revealed notable variation in the presence of academic and social language in the three ELP assessments. A series of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses also revealed varied relationships among social language proficiency, academic language proficiency, and content assessment performance. The findings highlight the importance of examining the constructs of ELP assessments for making appropriate interpretations and decisions based on the assessment scores for EL students. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.     

智力落后儿童语用能力研究述评

文章从交流行为、会话能力、语篇能力以及语境等几个方面,梳理了国内外智力落后儿童的语用研究。结果显示智力落后儿童交流行为的发展相对于普通儿童的交流行为发展来说,较为迟缓;智力落后儿童会话能力有待进一步研究;智力落后儿童有一定的叙事技能,但与普通儿童相比较落后;在不同语境下,智力落后儿童语用能力有一定差异。文章在现有研究成果的基础上,提出了未来研究的方向。     

Use of Decontextualized Talk Across Story Contexts: How Oral Storytelling and Emergent Reading Can Scaffold Children's Development

This study examined 33 mothers' and preschoolers' oral language skills (decontextualized discourse) across an emergent reading, shared reading, and oral storytelling interaction. The sample comprised primarily African American families from various socioeconomic backgrounds, ranging from Head Start families to middle-income families. Two measures of decontextualized language were assessed—literate language features and type of talk (i.e., a coding scheme categorizing comments/questions on a continuum from contextualized to decontextualized talk). Mothers used more decontextualized language during the oral storytelling interaction versus the other interactions, but children used more during the emergent reading interaction. Mothers with advanced literacy skills were more likely to make decontextualized comments/questions and use mental/linguistic verbs during the interactions. Results are discussed in terms of implications for parent-child home literacy interventions.     

儿童学业语言的概念框架与教育意蕴

语言文化多元背景下的儿童学业教育问题,更加凸显了儿童学业语言发展的重要性。然而,关于学业语言的概念界定,学者尚未达成共识。对已有文献的研究与分析表明,学业语言的定义呈现出多元化形态,且演变出不同理论视角的概念发展图景。基于教育语言学立场的学业语言概念框架阐释,指向一种多元融合的学业语言连续体模型。学业语言是不同于日常会话的一种特别的语言语域,旨在实现信息交流、学业思考与社会象征三大功能,在学业教育话语情境实践中表现出特定的语言学特征和语用学规范。学业语言视阈下的课程教学、教师教育发展有其特定的实践意蕴。     

Predictors and Outcomes of Early vs. Later English Language Proficiency Among English Language Learners

The development of English language learners (ELLs) was explored from kindergarten through eighth grade within a nationally representative sample of first-time kindergartners (N = 19,890). Growth curve analyses indicated that, compared to native English speakers, ELLs were rated by teachers more favorably on approaches to learning, self control, and externalizing behaviors in kindergarten and generally continued to grow in a positive direction on these social/behavioral outcomes at a steeper rate compared to their native English-speaking peers, holding other factors constant. Differences in reading and math achievement between ELLs and native English speakers varied based on the grade at which English proficiency is attained. Specifically, ELLs who were proficient in English by kindergarten entry kept pace with native English speakers in both reading and math initially and over time; ELLs who were proficient by first grade had modest gaps in reading and math achievement compared to native English speakers that closed narrowly or persisted over time; and ELLs who were not proficient by first grade had the largest initial gaps in reading and math achievement compared to native speakers but the gap narrowed over time in reading and grew over time in math. Among those whose home language is not English, acquiring English proficiency by kindergarten entry was associated with better cognitive and behavioral outcomes through eighth grade compared to taking longer to achieve proficiency. Multinomial regression analyses indicated that child, family, and school characteristics predict achieving English proficiency by kindergarten entry compared to achieving proficiency later. Results are discussed in terms of policies and practices that can support ELL children's growth and development.     

English Language Proficiency and Early School Attainment Among Children Learning English as an Additional Language

Children learning English as an additional language (EAL) often experience lower academic attainment than monolingual peers. In this study, teachers provided ratings of English language proficiency and social, emotional, and behavioral functioning for 782 children with EAL and 6,485 monolingual children in reception year (ages 4–5). Academic attainment was assessed in reception and Year 2 (ages 6–7). Relative to monolingual peers with comparable English language proficiency, children with EAL displayed fewer social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties in reception, were equally likely to meet curriculum targets in reception, and were more likely to meet targets in Year 2. Academic attainment and social, emotional, and behavioral functioning in children with EAL are associated with English language proficiency at school entry.     

The Effect of English Language Proficiency Level and Educational Background on Academic Achievement

The English Proficiency Level (EPL) of 205 first year business students from 16 Asian countries was assessed on arrival in Australia using the Australian Second Language Proficiency Ratings (ASLPR). Academic grades were recorded for their first, second and third semesters. Statistical analysis of the students' records shows that educational background is the major determinant of success in business courses, with no statistically significant effect coming from EPL. In practice, English proficiency is used as a major selection criterion in its application to the entry of full fee paying international students; on the basis of the evidence presented here, there is no need for a stringent EPL criterion to be applied, which is an important finding for those involved in the selection of international students who wish to study in Australian institutions. An important policy impinging on academic achievement is that students who fail their first semester are allowed to continue their studies; the policy leads to an estimated 39% of students allowed such grace going on to obtain a pass for the course; EPL bears no relationship to academic achievement for students in this category, the major determinant being their educational background. Thus, it is important that stringent conditions are applied to potential international students' educational background, but that they are not disadvantaged by their English language ability.     

How Early Maternal Language Input Varies by Race and Education and Predicts Later Child Language

The maternal language input literature suggests that mothers with more education use a greater quantity and complexity of language with their young children compared to mothers with less education although race and socioeconomic status have been confounded in most studies because of small sample sizes. The current Family Life study included a representative sample of 1,292 children, oversampling for poverty and African American, followed from birth. This study found no race differences within maternal education levels on five measures of maternal language input from 6 to 36 months. Maternal language input variables of number of different words, mean length of utterance and number of wh-questions were partial mediators of the relationship between maternal education and later child language at school age.     

浅谈幼儿语言发展重要性及其培养策略

语言表达作为一种能力,要培养和发展就必须从幼儿时期开始,因为3～6岁是人一生中语言能力发展的关键期。在这个阶段,需重视幼儿语言能力的提升,让幼儿接受良好的语言教育,通过日常的语言训练活动和语言教学活动,有目的、有计划的训练幼儿语言表达能力。要培养好幼儿的语言表达能力,幼儿教师起着至关重要的作用。     

基于语言能力的话语评价

语言具有十分丰富的评价资源,主要包含态度评价、介入评价和分级评价。老练的话语者善于使用这些资源,在话语中表达对所叙述的人、事、物之肯定或否定的评价,以引起协商、博取受话者的共鸣,从而增强话语的感染力。得体的话语评价除了准确的判断力,还必须具备丰富的语言知识、良好的语言感觉。鉴于此,本文的结论是评价能力基于话语者的语言能力之上。又反过来证明其语言的能力。以此标准审视英语专业学生的语言能力发展状况,初步调查结果令人深思。     

汉语能力等级测试构想

汉语能力测试评价的对象是以汉语作为生活、学习、工作基本用语的人群,评价侧重于汉语言文字实际应用能力。本文讨论了《汉语能力标准》《汉语能力测试大纲》和评价系统的研制思路。不同语言水平层次的人群语言运用活动的范围有所不同,因此在汉语能力测试中应该针对不同语言能力水平层次的人群设计不同的运用任务。根据研究,我们在《汉语能力标准》中从低到高设六个等级,分为汉语能力总体描述和分级描述两部分。汉语能力总体描述是对不同级别汉语综合应用能力的概括描述。分级描述则分别对各个级别的汉语口语理解能力、汉语口语表达能力、汉语书面语理解能力、汉语书面语表达能力进行具体描述。     

The Longitudinal Effects of Early Language Intervention on Children's Problem Behaviors

Researchers examined whether a parent-implemented language intervention improved problem behaviors 1 year after intervention. Ninety-seven children with language delays (mean age at 12-month follow-up = 48.22 months) were randomized to receive Enhanced Milieu Teaching (EMT) language intervention or business as usual treatment. Twelve months after the intervention ended, children in the EMT intervention condition displayed lower rates of parent-reported externalizing, internalizing, and total problem behaviors. A mediation analysis revealed that the relation between EMT and problem behaviors was partially mediated by child rate of communication for both internalizing and total problem behaviors. A developmental framework is proposed to explain the impact of EMT on problem behaviors, and future lines of research are discussed.     

二语水平因素对口语水平的影响

利用社会科学统计分析软件SPSS和路径分析软件LISREL对所采集的数据进行定量分析。由此产生的线形结构因果模型显示二语水平中有三个因素——二语表达词汇知识、二语听力技能和二语写作技能对口语水平有直接影响,而“二语水平”中理解性的语言知识和语言技能对口语水平主要起间接作用。     

Fathers' Early Contributions to Children's Language Development in Families from Low-income Rural Communities

This study utilized a large sample of two-parent families from low-income rural communities to examine the contributions of father education and vocabulary, during picture book interactions with their infants at 6 months of age, to children's subsequent communication development at 15 months and expressive language development at 36 months. After controlling for family demographics, child characteristics, as well as mother education and vocabulary, father education and father vocabulary during the picture-book task were related to more advanced language development at both 15 and 36 months of age. Only mother education, but not vocabulary during book-reading was related to children's later language. These findings support the growing evidence on the importance of fathers in understanding children's early communication and language development.     

儿童言语表达中的语码转换

对两个儿童语言使用的观察,旨在探讨儿童在言语表中的语码转换。观察发现,和成人的语码转换一样,儿童的语码转换既可以是有意识的也可以是无意识的。     

Cognitive Control Predicts Academic Achievement in Kindergarten Children

Children's ability to shift behavior in response to changing environmental demands is critical for successful intellectual functioning. While the processes underlying the development of cognitive control have been thoroughly investigated, its functioning in an ecologically relevant setting such as school is less well understood. Given the alarming number of children who face failure in the U.S. school system, the purpose of this project is to determine whether subtly different measures of cognitive control differentially predict academic achievement. Sixty‐five kindergarten children were given two versions of a Dimensional Change Card Sort task—a geometric version followed by a linguistic version. Educational outcomes consisted of a standardized measure of academic achievement as well as assessments used by the school district. Results revealed that cognitive control, particularly as assessed by the linguistic variant, predicted children's academic performance on math and school‐based assessments, thereby suggesting that deficient cognitive control negatively impacts educational success.     

高中学业水平测试:困境与解析

高中学业水平测试如果不与高考挂钩,各高中学校对此不会有太多重视,教学会集中精力于高考科目;如果与高考挂钩,却又被过度重视而加剧应试之风,影响正常教学。比较发达国家学业成就评价改革的理论与实践研究成果,或许可为解决此两难困境、为学业水平测试的正确走向提供一些借鉴。     

Profiles of Minority-Majority Language Proficiency in 5-Year-Olds

Children from language minority homes reach school age with variable dual language skills. Cluster analysis identified four bilingual profiles among 126 U.S.-born, 5-year-old Spanish–English bilinguals. The profiles differed on two dimensions: language balance and total language knowledge. Balance varied primarily as a function of indicators of the relative quantity and the quality of their language exposure (amount of home exposure and maternal education in each language). Total language knowledge varied primarily as a function of indicators of children’s language learning ability (phonological memory and nonverbal intelligence). English dominance was more prevalent than balanced bilingualism; there was no Spanish dominant profile, despite average Spanish dominance in home language use. There was no evidence of a tradeoff between English and Spanish skills.     

Maternal Support of Children's Early Numerical Concept Learning Predicts Preschool and First‐Grade Math Achievement

The primary goal in this study was to examine maternal support of numerical concepts at 36 months as predictors of math achievement at 4½ and 6‐7 years. Observational measures of mother–child interactions (n = 140) were used to examine type of support for numerical concepts. Maternal support that involved labeling the quantities of sets of objects was predictive of later child math achievement. This association was significant for preschool (d = .45) and first‐grade math (d = .49), controlling for other forms of numerical support (identifying numerals, one‐to‐one counting) as well as potential confounding factors. The importance of maternal support of labeling set sizes at 36 months is discussed as a precursor to children's eventual understanding of the cardinal principle.     

Early Maternal Employment and Children's Academic and Behavioral Skills in Australia and the United Kingdom

This study assessed the links between early maternal employment and children's later academic and behavioral skills in Australia and the United Kingdom. Using representative samples of children born in each country from 2000 to 2004 (Australia N = 5,093, U.K. N = 18,497), OLS regression models weighted with propensity scores assessed links between maternal employment in the 2 years after childbearing and children's skills in first grade. There were neutral associations between maternal employment and children's first‐grade skills in both countries. However, there was a slight indication that more time away from parenting was negatively linked to children's behavioral functioning in Australia and employment begun between 9 and 24 months was positively linked to cognitive skills for U.K. children of low‐wage mothers.