Information policy, information access, and democratic participation: The national and international implications of the Bush administration’s information politics

Much of information policy is focused on establishing the parameters of information access—ensuring or limiting access to certain types of information. Given how central information access is to virtually every aspect of society, policy can be seen as one of the most significant forces influencing the information society. Recent events, however, have fueled changes in the ways that some governments use policy to shape access, none more significantly than the United States. This paper examines the meanings of and relationships between policy and access, as well as their key roles in society and democratic participation. Following an examination of the historical and social impacts of policies about access, the article analyzes the perspectives of the Bush administration on how policy should shape information access as an illustration of the relationships between policy and access. The paper examines the issues raised by the Bush administration’s views on access and policy and the implications of their policies for the United States, for the global information society, and for research related to information. Ultimately, the paper raises questions about the extent to which information policies about access can be used for overtly political purposes, what might be described as “information politics,” without significantly altering the meaning of information access in a society.     

FOIA, federal information policy, and information availability in a post-9/11 world

Access to government records is increasingly shifting to a nether world-governed neither by the FOIA and the Privacy Act, nor by an executive order on classification. Instead, new categories of records, labeled “sensitive but unclassified,” “for official use only,” or “critical infrastructure information,” are being created in a variety of agencies, and are governed by agency regulations. Statutory authority is found in a number of separate laws, such as the Homeland Security Act and the Aviation and Transportation Security Act. These categories can be assigned by agency officials, contractors, or those in the private sector who originated the records; many records categorized this way are not subject to appeal or review by agencies or the courts, or to any automatic “declassification” process that has applied to documents withheld under the FOIA or subject to classification. Trends toward increased secrecy at all levels of government have become sufficiently alarming that individuals across the political spectrum have begun to speak out, and members of the access community (e.g., newspaper editors and public interest groups) have formed coalitions to focus debate on the need to rethink the balance of access with privacy and records protection, and to lobby actively for reinstatement of principles of access that have governed records policy for the past 35 years.     

Advances and Trends in Geospatial Information Accessibility-Part I

Abstract

Geospatial information access continues to be central to the mission of geography and map libraries. Providing or facilitating access has been, and continues to be, a dynamic process in light of both technological change and policy challenges. While technological changes in providing access have gathered much attention in the literature, substantive discussions regarding policies and practices preventing or assisting information access have been lacking. Even more troubling is the fact that archiving digital geospatial information receives even less attention. This first paper reviews developments and trends with regard to digital geospatial libraries, as this concept has become the primary metaphor by which access is measured. The second paper will focus on international trends related to the effect of policy and practice in terms of promoting the sharing and use of geospatial information needed to bridge gaps in access. These comparative policy and practice perspectives are also needed in order to point to the true promise held by new technologies for sharing, exemplified by digital libraries designed for geospatial information.     

Government secrecy: policy depths and dimensions

Government secrecy has a long history in the American federal experience. Several kinds of government secrecy policy are reviewed here, beginning with their origins, or “policy depths,” and extending to their most recent expressions or “dimensions.” It is a rich history which, in this brief overview, is explored only in terms of its highlights, but offers, nonetheless, a roadmap for pursuing research in this area. It concludes with the observation that, in a democracy, representatives of the citizenry, whether elected or appointed, may momentarily cloak their decisionmaking and their policies in secrecy for the good of the nation—to protect it from enemies and to assure its survival. Those representatives must remember that the secrecy they impose is only momentary and that the shrouded decisions and policies they make, once made known to the citizenry, must be acceptable to them. The citizenry, in turn, accept such secrecy only in limited instances and on a momentary basis in order to have the confidence that their representatives are making decisions and policies acceptable to them. A government failing to honor these arrangements may well be regarded as one “not worth the cost of preservation.”     

Advances and Trends in Geospatial Information Accessibility—Part II

Abstract

Access to geospatial information continues to be central to the mission of geography and map libraries. Providing or facilitating access has been, and continues to be, a dynamic process in light of both technological change and policy challenges. While technological changes in providing access to information have gathered much attention in the literature, substantive discussions regarding policies and practices that prevent or assist information access to geospatial information have been lacking. This second paper focuses on trends related to policy and practice in terms of sharing and use of geospatial information. These comparative policy and practice perspectives are also needed in order to point to the true promise held by technologies for sharing, exemplified by digital libraries designed for geospatial information as was pointed to in the first paper. On the whole, both papers join together by suggesting a role for librarians, especially through the construct of the geolibrary.     

Wireless is changing the policy calculus for municipal broadband

Historically, the justification for municipal provisioning of “last-mile” communications infrastructure has focused on the natural monopoly aspect of wireline infrastructure. Growing interest in wireless ISPs, municipal hot spots, and access to public space for siting wireless infrastructure suggests new and expanded opportunities for local government participation in telecommunication services. This paper examines the implications of emerging wireless technologies for the policy debate over whether municipalities should be playing an active role in providing last-mile broadband services and, if so, what the nature of that role should be.     

Terminology deconstructed: Phenomenographic approaches to investigating the term “information”

Although considerable attention has been focused on information users in recent years, little phenomenographic research into the word “information” has been conducted, perhaps because cursory consideration may suggest that work of this type is less useful than explorations of areas such as information-seeking. The lack of an established methodological framework discourages inquiry and, if understandings of the term are unique to each individual, there seems little scope to develop even broad principles for practice. Nevertheless, phenomenographic research helps professionals to learn how far users’ attitudes to the term “information” are consistent with their own and can reduce confusion between information providers and their clientele. Despite the absence of an accepted framework, several individual techniques are available. Ultimately, the research findings may prove highly instructive. They may, for example, influence the use of the word “information” by professionals when they interact with clients, whilst also offering insights into information behavior and information worlds.     

Information rights and national security

The changes in the global information landscape, as epitomized by the reaction of governments to the 9/11 attacks, resulted in legislation, policy, and the formation of agencies that have affected many issues related to information and its use. This article examines the recent multiplicity of challenges that affect citizens' control and use of information. In the name of the war on terror, greater national security, and globalization trends, information laws, and policies often go further than is necessary and impact on the information rights of citizens. In this article, we advocate for bringing together what are at times disparate information issues under one label, namely, “information rights” (which include privacy, freedom of expression, access, etc.). Information rights are apprehended from a user-centered perspective (i.e., users as citizens, not just consumers). They cover many different aspects of the information life cycle and the roles and responsibilities of individuals and communities. Such an approach provides an alternative way of framing current information issues as they relate to national security policies and civil liberties in the broader sense.     

Building electronic cooperation in the 1990s- the Maryland, Georgia, and Texas experiences

Large scale statewide library cooperation using information technology and wide area networks dates back to the early 1980s with efforts such as the Florida Center for Library Automation and, more recently, the LOUIS Project in Louisiana (see JAL January 1994) and OhioLink (see JAL September 1995). Early efforts were usually focused on the implementation of library information management systems and the provision of shared access to locally held collections, and they often still are. In the 1990s, though, we are witnessing a shift in statewide cooperative use of networks to provide principally access to bibliographic and full-text resources not held locally and usually provided by commercial vendors for use by libraries. As the case studies in this column illustrate the development of funding sources, the technical implementations and support, and the management organization differ from state to state. They reflect, though, the incremental shift in the information landscape towards “electronic libraries”. I choose the word incremental intentionally to reflect that this change has not (at least so far) been anywhere near as rapid or revolutionary as many expected. Nevertheless, what has happened in about 15 years is quite dramatic. It portends a different kind of academic library.—CBL, University of Maryland, College Park.     

Policy implications of a model public information service: the DOSFAN experience

The unique three-way partnership formed by the University of Illinois at Chicago’s federal depository library, the U.S. State Department, and the Government Printing Office (GPO) to deliver and preserve foreign policy information through servers housed at the University’s library offers some critical insights into the assumptions and policies of the GPO’s Federal Depository Library Program. Ultimately, the Internet’s explosive growth, combined with powerful graphical interfaces of the major Web browsers, undermines several recently enacted laws that attempt to standardize (or centralize) effective information resource management within the federal government. Not only has GPO steadily lost political and economic support over the last decade from both legislative and executive leaders for its production and distribution programs, many agencies now consider their “.gov Webspaces” the natural successors to the GPO and its depository library program. As a result, a new model of government information distribution is being forged within the highly decentralized and interactive environment of the World Wide Web.     

Universal service in a global networked environment: Selected issues and possible approaches

This article provides an overview and summary of selected issues related to the development of universal service to networked information resources and services in a global networked environment. Complex issues have yet to be addressed regarding basic concerns such as defining the term “universal service” as it suggests a range of meanings and uses given different societal contexts. The model for universal service being developed in the United States offers some lessons and concerns for other nations attempting to promote universal service as a national policy. The article concludes with a number of recommendations that address selected policy issues related to universal service in a global networked environment.     

Mediacy: what it is? Where to go?

The author re-examines the concepts in the light of “digital literacy” to determine the problems, tasks and fields of common interest. He reviews the government actions in Japan in providing access to digital knowledge and in creating information literacy, such as schools, higher education, life-long education, etc. He explores which findings in recent developments in Japan can be of common interest and shared with other advanced, as well as developing countries. Finally, possibilities for future international co-operation are discussed.     

Design-based research for LIS

Design-based research is a methodology emerging from the field of education that may hold potential for research in library and information science (LIS). Based upon the assumption that learning is situated in a real-world context, design-based research combines research, design, and practice into one process. It results in usable products that are supported by a theoretical framework. While definitional and methodological issues do exist, the method holds some promise for research into “user-centered” information systems and services. In the field of LIS, design-based research might contribute to our understanding of how people find, choose, understand, and use information in context. The method is also of interest to professionals concerned with “evidence-based practice.” This article will first explain and describe the method as it has been used in the allied field of education. Issues related to definition and methodology will be explored, as well as some of the solutions that have been proposed. The method will then be related to LIS, using the bonded design work of Large, Nesset, Beheshti, and Bowler [Large, A., Nesset, V., Beheshti, J., & Bowler, L. (2006a). Bonded design: a methodology for designing with children. In S. Kurniawan & P. Saphiris (Eds.), Advances in Universal Web Design and Evaluation: Research, Trends and Opportunities. London: Idea Group., Large, A., Nesset, V., Beheshti, J., & Bowler, L. (2006b). “Bonded design”: a novel approach to intergenerational information technology design. Library and Information Science Research, 28, 64–82] as a case study to demonstrate the applicability of design-based research to LIS inquiry.     

Reinventing (open) government: State and federal trends

Federal open records laws, executive orders on national security classification, and similar policy instruments in the states require that most records at government agencies be available to the public upon request—subject to exemptions which may entail review. Traditionally, this review has been accomplished by redaction (purging) of hardcopy. Resource limitations and increases in the number of requests demand a rethinking of the process. Offices are experimenting with optical scanning, onscreen purging, and online dissemination. Statutory and common law trends may soon require disclosure of database reports in electronic form, when so requested, rather than printouts. The dissemination of manipulable data of commercial value requires a rationale broader than the “citizenship rights” that justified the Freedom of Information Act. Online publication of agency-controlled records also demands careful planning of information systems and public networks. The issues discussed in this article are central to the establishment of an adequate policy for electronic freedom of information.     

Lessons learned from unsuccessful experiences

This is the first guest column for “Managing Technology”. We hope it typifies the central theme of challenges to managers presented by information technology and the lessons we may share from their application. This essay is of signal interest, appearing as it does at a watershed in library automation. We may expect a wholesale shift in the next several years from single machine integrated systems to distributed computing technologies and a client/server model. The five “lessons learned” in the Oklahoma State experience will be broadly applicable in the next wave of library automation.—C.B.L.     

Analysis of the urban/rural broadband divide in Canada: Using GIS in planning terrestrial wireless deployment

Millions of Canadians residing in Canada's northern, isolated, rural, and remote communities do not have broadband Internet access. This situation has led to a national “broadband divide.” That is, the deployment of wireline broadband is very limited in Canada's northern, isolated, rural, and remote areas because of the significant expense of installation and maintenance of the wired infrastructure needed to reach dwellings in these locations.Terrestrial broadband wireless technology, on the other hand, does not entail the same kind of physical infrastructure. As a result, there are dramatic changes in how spatial considerations affect the provision of broadband Internet services (BIS) to areas beyond the urban zone. In particular, the spatial question is now focused on assessing the capacity for different technological solutions to reach profitable population bases, and brings to the forefront organizations that are developing non-line-of-sight (NLOS) technologies that would permit wireless Internet access over much greater distances than current solutions.We begin this paper by establishing the importance of broadband connectivity to Canada's northern, isolated, rural, and remote communities. This discussion comments on the role of the Government of Canada in the provision of broadband connectivity to residents of these communities, and outlines the current regulatory issues that govern wireless services and policy formulation.The second part of the paper illustrates the use of geographic information system (GIS) approaches in the study of wireless broadband planning and deployment. Case study findings suggest that GIS applications can make a significant contribution to the analysis of wireless deployment planning, to the understanding of the relationships between wireless signal sources and consumers, and to the spatial configuration of terrestrial wireless broadband networks. We conclude the paper by discussing how the GIS approach employed could be used to inform the public policy process with regard to increasing access to broadband Internet services in all regions of the country, and thereby providing the opportunity for all Canadians, regardless of location, to fully participate in the Information Society.     

Turning techno-savvy into info-savvy: authentically integrating information literacy into the college curriculum

It is no longer effective to provide information literacy instruction that is thought to be “good for” college students, but rather, instruction must focus on the learning styles and preferences of the target population. This case study reports a series of hands-on/minds-on information literacy activities that dissolve student's misconception that “techno-savvy” is synonymous with information literate. Careful and thorough instruction in the mining of popular Internet search engines for authoritative information was coupled with instruction in the use of traditional library resources. It was found that the college students studied possess a high need for clarity and a low tolerance for ambiguity, and therefore any activities assigned must be thoroughly, yet succinctly, described in order to achieve success. Combining traditional information literacy instruction with novel approaches appeals to the confidence in and reliance on Internet search engines that college students exhibit, while it moves this microcosm toward a higher level of information literacy and commitment to life long learning.     

Ethical Challenges of the Information Society in the 21st Century

The paper deals with theoretical and practical challenges of the information society in the 21st century. In the first part an overview of past and current activities in the field of information ethics at UNESCO is provided (Virtual Forum, Second International Congress on Information Ethics, Observatory on the information Society). The second part presents a historical interpretation of the development of modern information society with the emerging networked world society with its characteristics of interactivity and decentralization. The diversity of moral norms and traditions within this global medium gives rise to the question concerning an Internet-morality as a challenge to ethical thinking. The third part deals with the question of our identity within the framework of a digital ontology. The concepts of “net” and “information” are analysed. A future information ethics is based on a digital ontology. Living in the information age is considered from the point of view of both an ethical imperative and the art of living.     

Paperwork reduction act reauthorization and government information management issues

Replacing the ineffective Federal Reports Act of 1942, the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980 (PRA) was enacted largely to relieve the public of the mounting information collection and reporting requirements of the federal government. It also promoted coordinated information management activities on a governmentwide basis by the director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and prescribed information management responsibilities for the executive agencies. The management focus of the PRA was sharpened with the 1986 amendments which refined the concept of “information resources management” (IRM), defined as “the planning, budgeting, organizing, directing, training, promoting, controlling, and management activities associated with the burden, collection, creation, use, and dissemination of information by agencies, and includes the management of information and related resources such as automatic data processing equipment.” This key term and its subset concepts received further definition and explanation in the PRA of 1995, making IRM a tool for managing the contribution of information activities to program performance, and for managing related resources, such as personnel, equipment, funds, and technology. The PRA currently authorizes appropriations for its administration by the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA), located within OMB, through FY2001 (44 U.S.C. 3520). Reauthorization of OIRA appropriations provides an opportunity to upgrade the PRA’s provisions and to address prevailing government information management issues.