Formative assessment: the role of participatory action research in blending policy and practice in Uganda

This paper documents teachers’ assessment practices and pupils’ learning to read and write in large classes. To gain insights into the assessment practices and pupils’ learning, the principles of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development and participatory action research (PAR) design were adopted. Collaboratively, teachers reflected on their assessment practices, developed, implemented and monitored the assessment practices. Through observation, in-depth interview and review of exercise books, data were obtained. We argue that teachers’ involvement in PAR has contributed to changing assessment practices in large classes and in improving pupils’ competencies in reading and writing. On the other hand to promote better assessment practices, we advocate for reduced number of pupils in a class and teachers’ workload to enable them offer more support to the pupils during assessment of reading and writing.     

Rater strategies for reaching agreement on pupil text quality

Novice members of a Norwegian national rater panel tasked with assessing Year 8 pupils’ written texts were studied during three successive preparation sessions (2011–2012). The purpose was to investigate how the raters successfully make use of different decision-making strategies in an assessment situation where pre-set criteria and standards give a rather strict framework. The data sources were the raters’ pair assessment dialogues. The analysis shows that the raters use a ‘shared standards strategy’, but when reaching agreement on text quality they also seem to make very good use of assessment strategies related to their work as writing teachers. Moreover, asymmetries in knowledge and participation among raters contribute to creating an image of writing assessment as a challenging hermeneutic practice. It is suggested that future rater preparation would gain from being attentive to the internalised assessment practices teachers bring to the fore when working as raters.     

A comparison of teacher assessment (APP) with standardised tests in primary literacy and numeracy (WIAT-II)

Assessing Pupils’ Progress (APP) arose from a government drive to increase the amount of teacher-based assessment within school and to make this consistent across schools. We conducted semi-structured interviews with head teachers to gain insight into how their schools applied APP and we compared the APP levels for English and Maths, provided by teachers across 11 schools for 72 pupils, to a standardised assessment (Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II; WIAT). There was a strong correlation between the APP and WIAT for literacy but not for numeracy. Head teacher interviews revealed that APP is used differently across schools and at times is used in a way inconsistent with government guidance, which raises the question of how teacher assessments are used and their purpose. Questions that should be considered are; how is moderation used in schools, what is the function(s) of teacher assessments and what is good practice in relation to these assessments? Clarity about the function of assessments is of vital importance as is ensuring that assessments are meaningful to teachers, pupils, families and schools, especially in light of the weight that can be placed on teacher assessments for all these groups.     

‘But sir,I lied’ – the value of autobiographical discourse in the classroom

This article aims to examine the benefits of teachers using their own autobiographical writing in the classroom. It explores the blurring of truth and fiction in autobiographical writing and argues that teachers can help students if they provide students with the cloak of fiction when writing about their own lives. Furthermore, it puts forward the case that when teachers share pertinent autobiographical episodes then pupils are more willing to respond in an engaged and passionate fashion. In developing my argument, I suggest that autobiographical writing can be therapeutic in certain classroom contexts. The data sources for this article are the author's own life and two case studies: an 11‐year‐old boy, George, and a 15‐year‐old girl, Eloise, both of whom were pupils of the author and wrote autobiographically for him. The methodological approach is that of bricolage: chiefly, the article combines ethnographical observation with interviews and discourse analysis. I also examine quantitative studies which look at the therapeutic dimensions of autobiographical writing. Theoretically I draw on Friere's concept of ‘conscientization’ (Friere 1985: 49) in order to critique the ‘banking’ concept of education, which would close down opportunities for pupils to write freely about their own lives.     

The motivational paradox of feedback: teacher and student perceptions

The notion that future performance can be affected by information about previous performance is often expressed in terms of ‘closing the gap’. Feedback has long been recognised as a mechanism through which teaching and learning may be influenced. The current wave of support in the United Kingdom for assessment for learning echoes these sentiments. This paper examines the feedback strategies employed by two experienced literacy practitioners in England. Using data gathered from field observations, interviews and documentary sources, the paper presents evidence of espoused practice associated with feedback, demonstrating that whilst teachers may claim that they make effective use of some feedback strategies to support pupils’ learning and motivation, that this is not supported by empirical data. The paper also identifies that whilst some teachers aim to mark every piece of pupils’ written work for perceived motivational benefits; such a strategy can undermine pupils’ intrinsic motivation and lead to a culture of over-dependency, whereby the locus of control with regard to feedback lies solely with the teacher. The paper concludes by exploring some possible implications for practice with regard to the provision of written feedback in particular.     

REAL-WORLD PROBLEMS: TEACHERS’ EVALUATION OF PUPILS’ SOLUTIONS

This article scrutinizes the solutions of real-world problems by pupils and the evaluations of these by their teachers in a semi-rural school in Zimbabwe. Generally, real-world problems are solved as if these are standard problems expecting a solution and a correct answer. In most cases, the solutions of the pupils are considered correct by the teachers thereby suggesting teachers’ unfamiliarity with the nature of these problems. There is not much variation in the solution approaches among pupils as well as between pupils and teachers. As assessment in many ways dictates teaching, it is suggested to incorporate continuous assessment into the system, which should include more open ended tasks from real-world contexts. This may encourage teachers to include the same in their day to day teaching.     

Harming not helping: The impact of a Canadian standardized writing assessment on curriculum and pedagogy

Test-based accountability programs are designed to promote improved standards of teaching and learning within the systems of education that they are connected to. Brenan [Brenan, A. L. (2006). Perspectives on the evolution and future of educational measurement. In: Robert (Ed.), Educational measurement (4th ed., pp. 1–16). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers], however, suggests that little evidence exists to support the claim that these standardized assessment programs are achieving this goal. This study examines a Canadian high-stakes writing assessment's effect on the teaching of writing in three grade 12 academic English classrooms. Analysis across cases revealed that factors shaping the exam's impact on teachers’ pedagogical choices include their attitude toward the exam, the pressure they felt from their school communities and their years of experience. The study also found that the exam caused teachers to narrow their teaching of writing in relation to processes taught, assignment design, and evaluation criteria utilized. The study concludes that in the cases observed, the exam is having a negative impact on the teaching of writing.     

Video narratives to assess student teachers’ competence as new teachers

In teacher education programmes, written portfolios or text-based self-evaluations are generally used to document the development of student teachers’ competence. However, such approaches do no justice to the complex nature of teaching as they tend to lead to evidence in which teacher competencies are disconnected and removed from the actual teaching practice. In one postgraduate teacher education programme, video narratives were evaluated as a valid way to assess student teachers’ teaching competencies, promoting connections amongst different competencies, situating these in practice and showing their development over time. Data were gathered from self-reports of both teacher educators and student teachers as well as student teachers’ completed video narratives. Most student teachers succeeded in meeting the set criteria for the video narrative assignment with connected video clips and text frames. However, student teachers also came up with only a few video episodes and loosely connected clips, reflections and other sources. Although most of the students during the programme did explicitly reflect upon their personal development towards becoming a teacher, almost none of them explicitly connected these ideas to their long-term development. We conclude that video narratives show potential to be used as a valid assessment of student teachers’ teaching competence. Yet, structured guidance as well as ill-structured assignments are needed in framing assessment of student teachers in teacher preparation: the former to clarify the aims, format and criteria and the latter to enable student teachers to reflect on their teaching in a personally, meaningful way.     

Inclusive pedagogy in action: getting it right for every child

A key assumption underpinning formative assessment strategies is that individual pupils must be fully involved in the process. While such engagement and attention on the individual is important, studies suggest that teachers do not always readily engage with formative assessment as a reciprocal process which involves pupils. Additionally, a focus on individual differences between pupils can be problematic if the work that is set for some is differentiated to such an extent that they are not able to participate in classroom activities with others. Inclusive pedagogy is an approach to teaching and learning that attends to individual differences between pupils but avoids the marginalisation that can occur when pedagogical responses are designed only with individual needs in mind. Using participant observation and video footage from three classrooms that captured ‘learning moments’ identified by teachers and pupils, this study documents how the professional craft knowledge of teachers develops as they learn to use what their pupils have to say about learning in the context of whole class teaching. By concentrating on the findings from one site, this paper shows how teachers can use what they learn from listening to pupils’ self-assessments of their learning in ways that meet the standard of inclusive pedagogy.     

Pupils’ perceptions of grades: a narrative analysis of stories about getting graded for the first time

The starting point for this article is changes in the Swedish assessment system which stated that pupils are to receive grade reports in school year 6 (12–13 years old) during the academic year 2012–2013. Since the 1970s, compulsory school pupils have received their first grade reports in grade 7 and/or 8. The issue here is to present pupils’ narratives about the possible future significance of grade reports in school year 6. Pupils were interviewed about their experiences of getting their first grade reports, and a narrative analysis was conducted. More specifically, we investigated pupils’ conceptions of themselves as pupils and of their future possibilities, as described in their stories of getting their first grade report. The findings show that pupils perceive grades in year 6 differently, showing both adaption and resistance to the new grading discourse. Our conclusion concerns pupils’ learning and well-being when national assessment policies are changed.     

Relationships between Pupils’ Sociocultural Background,Instruction in School and Writing Achievement

The aim of this study was to explain differences between pupils’ achievements in composition. A theoretic causal model of factors of importance to pupils’ proficiency in writing has been tested with data collected in the Swedish part of the IEA‐study. These data involve the pupils’ sociocultural background, the teachers’ experiences and the teaching of writing. The pupils’ marks for an argumentative composition represent the standard of their achievement in writing. The present analysis includes pupils in grade 9 of the Swedish compulsory comprehensive school. The causal model was verified concerning the relationships between pupils’ sociocultural background and their writing achievement. However, no relationships could be found between teaching in school and pupils’ achievement, a result which is discussed critically.     

形成性评价在英语写作教学中的应用探微

英语写作教学借助形成性评价可以激发学生写作兴趣,提高学生写作能力和写作水平。形成性评价的形式丰富多样,在课堂教学活动中,教师应结合学生英语水平和学习规律,采取分值评价、语言评价、自我评价、相互评价等方式,优化学生的英语写作活动,提高写作教学效率和质量。     

Teachers’ voices on integrating MCAG into Reading Assessment Tasks

The paper is an attempt to address, on behalf of the teacher of reading, some pedagogically significant aspects of metacognition. A study was designed to test the effect of using Metacognitive Awareness Guidance (MCAG) in reading assessment tasks given to nine year old pupils (fourth grade in Israel). MCAG addresses five basic habits of mind (HOM) through questions and activities. The rationale for applying it was influenced by Vygotsky’s notion of the “zone of proximal development”. After the study ended, each teacher whose class was part of the treatment group was interviewed. The purpose of the interviews was to gain the teachers’ perspectives, thoughts and opinions on applying MCAG to assessment tasks in reading; its role and effects on learner performance and outcomes; and its influence on their daily teaching and learning activities. Their reactions related to four aspects: the use of self‐talk, the use of metacognitive learning strategies, the written MCAG and integrating habits of mind into reading assessment tasks. The implications of the findings are discussed.     

Should assessment reflect only pupils’ knowledge?

In order to realise increasingly complex objectives of compulsory education, it is necessary to have in place appropriate teaching concepts as well as assessment and testing guidelines. The question, however, is what should be assessed: levels of acquired knowledge, skills or attitudes? Should assessment be only a measure of the educational process outcomes, or should it also measure the process of knowledge acquisition itself? How should assessment be carried out in order to respect the principle of fairness and justice? In this paper, we will present results of a research project in which we were interested to find out what teachers would assess if it were up to them to decide. Our survey was conducted on a representative sample of primary school teachers in Slovenia. In spite of clear regulations prescribing that teachers should only assess pupils’ progress in relation to the defined objectives and knowledge standards, teachers underlined the necessity to also consider other aspects of children’s development.     

A joyous lifeline in a target-driven job: teachers’ metaphors of teaching poetry writing

Drawing on Vygotsky’s notion, developed by Bruner, of learners growing into ‘the intellectual life of those around them’, this paper reports on a small-scale questionnaire survey of teachers’ thinking about poetry writing and their instructional practices of teaching it. Thirty-three teachers, with a range of teaching experience and service, took part in the study. This paper presents, analyses and evaluates the central metaphor of ‘freedom’ used by teachers. This presents poetry writing instruction in four contrasting ways: as freedom to explore personal creativity; as a site of integrated thinking; as a rejection of ‘formulaic writing’; and as freedom from curricular ‘directives’. The paper argues that these metaphors indicate considerable personal investment by teachers of poetry and that they consider the teaching of poetry writing to have impact as much on themselves as on pupils.     

Local language a medium of instruction: challenges and way forward

The paper reports on a participatory action research study conducted in six rural primary schools in Uganda in 2013 to establish why children taught in the local language had difficulties in reading and writing. Findings through interviews, focus group discussions, reviews of exercise books and lesson observations indicated that though it was easier for pupils to learn the concepts in the local language; challenges ranging from poor translation, inadequate teachers’ language proficiency, lack of instructional materials, high pupils’ enrolment, lack of administrative support and teacher-centred approach of teaching, affected pupils’ learning to read and write. Participants recommended adopting the child-centred pedagogy, incorporating instructional materials, conducting continuous assessment and recording pupils’ competencies attained in reading and writing. Teachers need to engage more in Participatory action research in order to reflect on their practices and pupils’ learning, and collaboratively decide what works best and what needs improvement in their classrooms.     

Intervention in teachers’ differential scoring judgments in assessing L2 writing through communities of assessment practice

In writing assessment, the inconsistency of teachers’ scorings is among the frequently reported concerns regarding the validity and the reliability of assessment. The study aimed to find out to what extent participating in a community of assessment practice (CAP) can impact the discrepancies among raters’ scorings. Adopting one group pretest-posttest design, patterns in the teachers’ scoring judgments were explored based on both quantitative and qualitative data. The results indicate significant increase in the degrees of agreement in the teachers’ differential scorings showing changes in their severity tendencies for structural variety, lexical accuracy, organization and mechanics criteria while their scoring judgements on structural accuracy, task achievement, and lexical variety criteria had low levels of agreement.     

Feedback as a relational concept in the classroom

Abstract

This paper constructs a theoretical argument to frame feedback as a relational concept. It addresses contemporary concern that formative assessment, of which feedback is a part, is under theorised. The arguments presented link to existing theoretical and research evidence. The paper also challenges the dominant policy discourse in high stakes assessment contexts in which feedback is typically seen in technised ways to serve the need to raise measured pupil outcomes. Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development is explored as a relational space in which both teachers and learners understand differences between learning ‘now’ and learning ‘next’. Extending Vygotsky’s perspective, a socio-cultural perspective is offered, by considering the role of ‘others’, ‘language’, ‘activity’ and ‘identity’, as part of the process of sharing and understanding feedback in classrooms. The work of Holland et al. (1998), Bakhtin (1986) are central to the developing argument. The paper reveals feedback as a complex situated process, requiring mediated dynamic interaction, where feedback is appropriated as a cultural artefact by its participants. The implications of such an articulation demands a greater sense of understanding pupils’ roles in feedback and the importance of teachers enabling pupils to see themselves in new ways as future learners.