Small Group Behavior of 5-Year-Old Children under Three Kinds of Educational Stimulation

This study was designed to investigate differential effects on the small group behavior among 5-year-old children of three alternative approaches to educational stimulation. The Ss were forty-eight children in a “Traditional Kindergarten Approach,” forty-eight children under the “Creative-Aesthetic Approach” and ninety-six children under the “Cognitive-Structured Approach.” They were assigned to 4-person groups to function in teams to match correctly twelve sets of twin faces on plaques. The experimenter oriented entire classes (15 to 25 children each) to the concept of team behavior and an observer was assigned to each 4-person group. There were no statistically significant differences among the three sets of groups on amount of time required to complete the task. The behavior of the “Traditional Kindergarten” groups could be characterized as alert, cooperative, enthusiastic, organized, and friendly. That of the “Creative-Aesthetic” children could be described as bickering, fighting, absorbed, and enthusiastic. That of the “Cognitive-Structured” could be characterized as somewhat apathetic, inattentive, low in friendliness, and lacking in organization.     

The pigeon’s discrimination of visual entropy: A logarithmic function

We taught 8 pigeons to discriminate 16-icon arrays that differed in their visual variability or “entropy” to see whether the relationship between entropy and discriminative behavior is linear (in which equivalent differences in entropy should produce equivalent changes in behavior) or logarithmic (in which higher entropy values should be less discriminable from one another than lower entropy values). Pigeons received a go/no-go task in which the lower entropy arrays were reinforced for one group and the higher entropy arrays were reinforced for a second group. The superior discrimination of the second group was predicted by a theoretical analysis in which excitatory and inhibitory stimulus generalization gradients fall along a logarithmic, but not a linear scale. Reanalysis of previously published data also yielded results consistent with a logarithmic relationship between entropy and discriminative behavior.     

“立则”和“开道”:宋初行卷古文的两种倾向

宋初的行卷古文存在“立则”和“开道”两种倾向。前者以王禹偁等人为代表,他们的古文多以“六经”为准的,试图为君臣定制定行为准则,展现出欲为帝王师的姿态。后者以柳开、张扶等为代表,试图希望以古文言说天地之道及仁义礼智信等“儒行”,继而使自己的古文获得与“六经”同等的地位甚至超越“六经”,达到成为“圣人”的目的。张扶等士子抱有“言天地之理不当使人易度易揣测”的想法,力图以古涩之语生成深奥的意义。把握这两种倾向,对于今人窥视当时的文坛以及理解“传道明心”等古文理论有着一定的意义。     

Gradient form and sequential effects during generalization testing in extinction

Four naive pigeons were given six generalization tests in extinction after periods of pretraining in which S+ appeared with food reinforcement and S? appeared in extinction. An analysis of sequential effects among presentations of test stimuli showed that the overall gradient was influenced differently by stimuli at the extremes of the continuum of test stimuli and by S+ and adjacent stimuli. Gradients consisting of responding in each stimulus when it was preceded by an extreme stimulus tended to peak at S+, while gradients produced when each stimulus was preceded by S+ or an adjacent stimulus tended to show a peak shift. This was true whether the overall gradient showed a peak shift or not. Two naive subjects were added and four additional tests were given after pretraining in which unequal frequencies of reinforcement accompanied both S+ and S?. Results of all 10 tests show that sequential effects occur during generalization testing in extinction and that these “local dimensional effects” are unlike local contrast. These stimulus-specific sequential effects may greatly influence overall gradient form.     

事实性知识、概括性知识与“大概念”--以语文学科为背景

林恩·埃里克森建立的“知识的结构”模型,很好地解释了以“大概念”组织单元的原理和机制。该模型分两个层面:第一层面是事实性知识,有“事实”和“主题”两个层级;第二层面是概括性知识,主要有“概念”和“概括性理解”两个层级。在教学中需依赖具体的事实性知识去发现或获得某一概念,经由理解某一概念构成一种“概念性视角”,凭借“概念性视角”去处理相应主题的具体事实。在两个层面相互作用的认知探究过程中,建立某一概念与其他概念的联系。“概念性理解”就是“由事实性实例支撑的真理”,可称为“概括性知识”。从学习内容的角度,“大概念”实际上是跨学科或学科“核心的概括性知识”。     

电商平台强制“二选一”行为法律分析

电子商务平台实施的强制“二选一”在竞争属性上属于破坏公平、自由竞争秩序的行为。针对此种行为,区分不同的利益受损主体,分别从平台内经营者和其他竞争平台角度确立法律救济路径,应当优先适用《电子商务法》的相关规定,并以《反不正当竞争法》第2条作为兜底条款构建法律规则体系。但基于针对互联网领域监管应持有审慎态度的价值取向,在不具有市场支配地位的行为人实施强制“二选一”行为的认定上,法律应当保持谦抑性,在反法一般条款的适用、和在“恶意”“不合理”因素的认定上应采取严格标准,以此促进互联网平台经济的发展。     

Asking Children to “Be Helpers” Can Backfire After Setbacks

Describing behaviors as reflecting categories (e.g., asking children to “be helpers”) has been found to increase pro-social behavior. The present studies (N = 139, ages 4–5) tested whether such effects backfire if children experience setbacks while performing category-relevant actions. In Study 1, children were asked either to “be helpers” or “to help,” and then pretended to complete a series of successful scenarios (e.g., pouring milk) and unsuccessful scenarios (e.g., spilling milk while trying to pour). After the unsuccessful trials, children asked to “be helpers” had more negative attitudes. In Study 2, asking children to “be helpers” impeded children's helping behavior after they experienced difficulties while trying to help. Implications for how category labels shape beliefs and behavior are discussed.     

The Earlier the Better? Pausing for Thought …

Is earlier intervention always superior? Using two complementary forms of meta-analysis, Gardner and colleagues find no support for the “earlier is better” hypothesis in outcomes of parenting programs for child behavior problems across the 2–11 year age range. This commentary explores possible methodological and substantive reasons for the pattern of their findings. We need additional careful analyses of this kind, assessing age variations in intervention effects across broader age ranges, and in other developmental domains, for strong tests of the “earlier is better” hypothesis. At this stage, however, Gardner et al.'s findings give us some pause for thought.     

近体诗的拗救

唐人善用“拗救”的格律,“拗救”的情况相当常见。列举“拗救”的各种观点,并对各家的分类情况进行分析,能使人们对近体诗的拗救情况有一个大体的把握。     

Nordic Experiences: Participants' Expectations and Experiences of Short-Term Study Abroad Programs

The purpose of this study was to investigate Finnish high school students' and teachers' perceptions of the effects of short-term Nordic study abroad programs in which they had participated. The data presented were based on a mixed-methods strategy. The data set consisted of responses from 158 students and 92 teachers to a specifically developed Study Abroad Assessment (SAA) instrument. These data were analyzed quantitatively and, in part, also qualitatively. Additional qualitative data in the form of interviews with six participants were also analyzed.

Four factors emerged from the analysis which represented dimensions of what a short-term study abroad (SA) program may offer to its participants. These dimensions were named “Personal growth,” “Social connectedness,” “Development of Nordic awareness,” and “Impact on career or study opportunities.” Composite variables were created on the basis of these factors. The analysis revealed some statistically significant differences between the groups (Period Scholars; Scholars to Sweden; Teachers) concerning the composite variables. The qualitative part of the study provided information on the benefits and challenges of short-term study abroad that were compatible with previous studies. There is evidence that even short-term study abroad programs in a Nordic context provide participants with some core skills needed later in life, and the benefits of SA were perceived to be greater by those who spent more time in the new environment.     

Effects of motor activity on the elicitation and modification of the startle reflex in rats

In order to examine the effects of efferent processes on the elicitation and modification of startle behavior, we administered startle-eliciting stimuli to rats while they were engaged in spontaneous motor activity. When tone bursts (Experiment 1) or electric shocks (Experiment 2) were used to elicit the reflex, its amplitude was substantially less when the rats were active than when they were quiet. Grooming, face washing, and consuming were associated with the greatest reduction. The ability of a 50-dB auditory prepulse to inhibit a subsequent auditory startle was also reduced during activity (Experiment 3). The amount of inhibition produced by a prepulse was decreased even when the baseline startle responses were equated in quiet and activity by varying the intensity of the eliciting stimulus, indicating that the reduction was not due to an artificial “floor effect” (Experiment 4). The study demonstrated that both sensory and motor events affect reflexive responses in the rat, as is known for the human.     

Using Student-Determined Needs to Evaluate Environmental Education Programs

Abstract

All too often, evaluation is not used as the important management tool it could be, because educators feel inadequately prepared to use complex evaluation techniques. “Direct evaluation,” as a research concept, is based on the idea of “research as an intermediate technology,” developed by Steven and Rachel Kaplan in Cognition and Environment (1982: Praeger). Direct evaluation means you ask what you need to know of those who are participants in a program you wish to evaluate. The results, when collated, can be used for justification as well as modification of programs.     

The “Sunshine in South Africa” literacy project

In South Africa, most black students are expected to learn in English, their second or third language. READ Education Trust, a non-government organization, has introduced book-based programs in many schools, and trained thousands of black teachers in methods of using the books constructively. Several formal evaluations have been conducted to investigate the impact of the READ programs. In the “Sunshine in South Africa” Project, a New Zealand publisher, Wendy Pye Ltd. donated 4000 books from her “Sunshine” series to 22 schools, in six different provinces, and READ staff trained teachers of these schools in the Shared Reading methodology during short workshops. Students in Year 2 and 3 were tested at the beginning and end of 1997, and their progress under the new program was compared with that of matched control groups, who followed a traditional textbook approach. The findings showed that Year 2 students in the “Sunshine” programs improved their reading skills at twice the rate of control groups, and showed impressive gains in listening comprehension. Strong significant improvements were also found for Year 3 Sunshine pupils. READ staff are extending these programs to many new schools throughout the Republic.     

Child care licensing regulations and child care quality in four states

This study analyzed the child care rules and regulations from the four states that had previously been reviewed under the Child Care, Cost & Quality study. Child day care regulations for each of the states were analyzed through rubrics designed by the investigators in the domains of structure, operations, personnel, and context. A separate analysis was done comparing regulations for protecting the child versus regulations for enhancing child development. The four states were in general agreement in setting higher standards for child protection than for the enhancement of development. Such regulations support the image of child care programs being a “safe haven” rather than a “development enhancer.” The limited requirements for child care personnel and for community interaction also encourage that image. These minimum standards departed substantially from professional judgments about what is needed in child care settings. The authors proposed higher personnel standards, greater explicit emphasis on developmental enhancement, and more required interaction with parents and community contact.     

Safety,celebration, and risk: educator responses to LGBTQ professional development

Research has explored multicultural teacher education from multiple, sometimes divergent perspectives; yet, these studies agree that what passes for multicultural education fails to address issues of educational inequity. This paper is part of a larger evaluation study of Reduction of Stigma in Schools (RSIS) – a professional development program aiming to empower educators to create affirming environments for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Questioning (LGBTQ) youth. Interview data indicate that though workshops utilized a critical approach, what teachers embraced was a call to understand and “protect” LGBTQ students through the “safety” discourse – a form of understanding and valuing the “cultural other” – and investment in one time “visibility” or “celebration” events as symbols of improved school climate. Further, educators framed LGBTQ issues as “risk” issues rather than as equity issues, which continue to mark LGBTQ students as “victims” or “problems” in need of saving or solving. We posit that responses to RSIS content reflect educators’ understanding of their obligation to “diversity” as presented during their teacher preparation programs and that workshop content which resonated with them was that which they could easily fit into these familiar frameworks.     

Revisioning Philosophy of Education Instruction in Competency-Based B. Ed. Programs

This article concerns the relationship between classroom assessments that are aligned with “competencies-based” teaching in Teacher Education programs on the one hand, and on the other hand, the challenge of offering authentic “philosophy of education,” “education theory,” or “education foundations” courses for student–teachers who are enrolled in a professional degree and on the way towards certification. Briefly, administrative and accreditation concerns with developing and demonstrating core “competencies” when teaching is considered strictly as a “profession” do not align with more ancient understandings of teaching as a “way of life”—especially when that life is led in some relation to philosophy, or “the pursuit of wisdom.” This article examines the disjunction between these two conceptualizations of teaching; it encourages readers to think about how this disjunction problematizes their pedagogy as “philosophers of education.”     

大学生经典阅读与立德树人——兼论大学生阅读中的“《平凡的世界》现象”

文学经典历来受大学生青睐。《平凡的世界》这部创作于20世纪80年代的文学作品连续位居大学生阅读榜首,展现出独特的“《平凡的世界》现象”。“《平凡的世界》现象”实质是经典的生命力的体现,由经典的思想性和艺术性铸就而成。因此,经典阅读的“成人”价值表现在奠基人的精神来路和理想去路、延拓人的知识视野和思维宽度、实现人的情感构建和思想升华等三方面。在当下经典阅读价值浅化、内容边缘化、阅读方式泛化语境中,要从动机、行为、价值三个层面,指引经典阅读的认识回归、发挥经典阅读的阵地协同、培育经典阅读的育人文化,构建通过经典阅读推进立德树人的现实路径。     

教师情感表演规则的类型学考察——基于国家教育政策的扎根理论研究

本研究从类型学视角,采用扎根理论从教育政策中归纳出教师情感表演规则的类型学体系。通过探索性分析得到如下形式理论:情感表演规则分为内隐性和外显性规则两大类;内隐性规则又分为情感修养规则、情感素质规则、情感认知规则、情感调节规则、情感体验规则,外显性规则分为情感行为规则和情感形象规则;根据类型之间的关系,本研究建构了"冰山模型"。对教师情感表演规则类型的探究有助于为全面优化教师情感实践提供指导。     

汉语人称代词使用的规律及其心理机制

在使用人称代词时既可以按照其本来的语义特征,又可以在"人称"和"数"两方面发生突破,从而使得其使用呈现出纷繁复杂的情况。通过考察大量的实例,我们发现,在这纷繁复杂的背后表现出一定的规律,即在"数"的方面倾向于使用复数形式;在"人称"方面倾向于向听话人靠拢,站在跟听话人一致或比较接近的立场上选用相应的人称代词。而之所以呈现出这样的规律,与人类普遍存在的"自己人"心理和"面子"心理有着密切的联系。     

What Really Matters in Synagogue Education: A Comparative Case Study of a Conventional School and an Alternative Program

This article examines case studies of two part-time synagogue education programs, a conventional “Hebrew School” and an alternative program modeled after Jewish summer camp. Using the lens of teaching of Bible to children in Grades 3–5, the study provides insight into similarities and differences between the two types of programs and the impact of the program structure on the proliferation and/or staying power of one or the other. I found that factors of success in synagogue education may not be dependent on a program’s structure (“school”/“camp”) but, rather, on factors such as professional learning and content knowledge, among others.