EQUITY IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE OUTCOMES: CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH AND LOW ACHIEVEMENT ON PISA 2006 IN IRELAND

Equity in education is a key concern internationally; however, it is rare that this issue is examined separately for low- and high-achieving students and concurrently across different subject domains. This study examines student and school background characteristics associated with low and high achievement in mathematics and science on the Programme for International Student Assessment. Based on the results of a multilevel multinomial model of achievement for each domain, findings indicate that a greater number of the variables examined are associated with low rather than high achievement. At student level, home language, intention to leave school early, socioeconomic status, grade level, cultural capital, and books in the home are significantly associated with achievement in mathematics and science. At school level, only school average socioeconomic status is statistically significant in the models. Significant gender differences are found in the distribution of high and low achievers, which vary across the domains. In mathematics, females are more likely to be low achievers while males are more likely to be high achievers. In science, gender interacts with early school-leaving intent whereas males intending to leave school early are more likely to be in the low-achieving group than females intending to leave early. Conclusions emphasise the need for targeting resources aimed at promoting equity in outcomes at student level as well as at school level. Future work may extend the current analyses by incorporating domain-specific variables or examining cross-country differences.     

Developmental aspects of reading motivation and reading achievement among second grade low achievers and typical readers

This investigation examined developmental aspects of 155 second‐graders' intrinsic reading motivation and reading achievement at the beginning and end of a school year. Reading motivation remained at the same level through the school year, while reading achievement was significantly higher at the end of it than at the beginning. According to word reading skills, low reading achievers (n = 63) and typical readers (n = 92) evinced significant differences in reading motivation. The former scored lower in overall reading motivation and self‐concept as a reader, as well as in reading achievement. Throughout the school year, low reading achievers showed a decline in overall motivation, self‐concept as a reader and literacy outloud, and did not improve in reading comprehension achievement. Reading motivation in typical readers remained high and steady during the school year. Implications of the results are discussed in relation to previous studies.     

Differences in Motivation Towards Science Subjects Among Kibbutz and Urban High School Students

This paper study analyzes differences in motivation towards science subjects among kibbutz and urban high school students in Israel. Students' motivational traits in science were explored by a questionnaire whose items corresponded to four motivational patterns: achievement, curiosity, conscientiousness and sociability. The major findings of this study are that a) Kibbutz students were mostly sociability oriented in the learning of science, b) city students were mostly sociability and achievement oriented in the learning of science, c) city students were better achievers than kibbutz students in junior high school, while in senior high school the difference between them was nonsignificant, d) there was a significant increase in kibbutz students' achievement motivation in learning science when passing from junior to senior high school.     

Implications of task structure on self‐regulated learning and achievement

School tasks interact with student motivation, cognition, and instruction to influence learning and achievement. Heeding calls for additional research linking motivational and cognitive factors in learning and instruction on specific tasks within authentic classroom settings we quantitatively and qualitatively track 90 tenth‐grade science students’ motivation, reported use of learning strategies, achievement, calibration, and task perceptions as they engage in a well‐structured task (WST) and an ill‐structured task (IST). Students achieved higher grades on, and reported more ease and value for, the WST whereas they utilised critical thinking and peer learning strategies more on the IST. Lower academic achievers calibrated their achievement less accurately on each task and experienced lower grades, interest, ease, and management capability on the IST. Conversely, higher academic achieving students reported more self‐efficacy and effort regulation and lower anxiety and elaboration on the IST. Motivation – notably less intrinsic goal orientation in low academic achievers and higher task value and self‐efficacy – predicted performance on the IST. The structure of tasks may provide prompts that illicit unique self‐regulated learning responses in students.     

Parents' Management of Their Children's Education Within the Home,at School,and in the Community: An Examination of African-American Families Living in Poverty

Using parents' answers to open-ended questions, we examine variation in parents' management of their children's education within the home, at school, and in the community as a function of whether their children were experiencing academic success or academic problems. Within the home, parents of high achievers used more specific strategies to help their children with their schoolwork and had more supportive conversations with their children than parents of low achievers. At their children's school, parents of high achievers not only were more involved but had different reasons for their involvement than parents of low achievers. In the community, more parents of high achievers explicitly engaged their children in activities to support their achievement than parents of low achievers. Implications for parents, schools, and communities are discussed.     

Group differences in test-taking behaviour: an example from a high-stakes testing program

This study investigated whether different groups of test-takers vary in their reported test-taking behaviour in a high-stakes test situation. A between-group design (N = 1129) was used to examine whether high and low achievers, as well as females and males, differ in their use of test-taking strategies, and in level of reported test anxiety and motivation. The results showed differences between high and low achievers on a number of test-taking strategies, where high achievers reported using successful strategies to a higher extent. There were also gender differences: females, for example, reported using random guessing to a higher extent than males. Further, low achievers, especially females, reported significantly higher levels of test anxiety than high achievers, and high achievers reported slightly higher levels of motivation when compared to low achievers. To conclude, test-taking behaviour might bring additional variance to test scores, whether or not this is irrelevant variance is discussed.     

In Search of the Effects of Academic Achievement in Postgraduation Earnings

The relationship between academic achievement and the financial success of baccalaureate recipients in the workplace is the focal point of an investigation that covers the first 3 years following graduation. Employment activity and quarterly earnings of university baccalaureate recipients were tracked in a comprehensive study that merged state unemployment insurance records with student data files. Quarterly earnings were regressed on grade point averages while controlling for age, registration type (native vs. transfer), major, gender, race, and industry. Patterns were discovered over the 3 years following graduation. Grade point average had little impact on earnings, as did registration type. Age, major, and industry were found to be significant. Gender and race held no significance. In an attempt to further explore the relationship between academic achievement and workplace success, a two-way ANOVA, repeated measures design was used to examine differences in the individual earnings of high academic achievers and low academic achievers over a 3-year period. No significant between-group effects were found.     

What is the Role of Intelligence in the Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities? Issues and Clarifications

A fundamental assumption in the identification of specific learning disabilities (SLD) has been that the presence of a severe discrepancy between ability and academic achievement is a valid marker for the presence of a SLD. This assumption is based on the notion that discrepant low achievers constitute a unique group of children who are different in a number of ways from nondiscrepant low achievers. Several meta‐analytic reviews contrasting discrepant and nondiscrepant low achievers fail to reveal significant differences between these two groups on measures of phonetic analysis, pseudoword decoding, word identification, spelling, oral reading fluency and other measures of literacy development and related phonological processing skills. This paper discusses the role of intelligence in identifying children with SLD and presents data based on correlational analyses and hierarchical regression analyses showing that intelligence is not a strong predictor of reading achievement and does not predict responsiveness to remedial instruction. These data also indicate that direct measures of responsiveness to intervention (RTI) strongly predict later reading achievement in tutored children from 1st grade through 4th grade. The combined results suggest that RTI approaches to the identification of SLD may have greater utility than psychometric approaches based on IQ scores or individual profile analysis.     

The effects of cooperative learning and learner control on students' achievement, option selections, and attitudes

We investigated the effects of studying alone or in cooperative-learning groups on the performance of high and low achievers, using either learner- or program-controlled computer-based instruction. A total of 92 sixth-grade students were classified by Stanford Achievement Test scores and randomly assigned to group or individual treatments, stratified by achievement scores. Both high and low achievers in the cooperative treatment performed better and had more positive attitudes toward grouping than did students working individually, on both program-controlled and learner-controlled computer lessons. In addition, the cooperative-learning group exhibited significantly greater improvement from immediate to delayed post-test than did the individual-learning group. For low achievers, the greatest improvement was in the program-controlled condition, and for the high achievers, in the learner-controlled condition. The learner-controlled cooperative-learning group, compared to the learner-controlled individual-learning group, chose to check its concept learning more often and spent more time interacting with the computer-based tutorial. These results suggest that cooperative learning provides beneficial effects, and imply a need for software designers to adapt computer-based instruction for cooperative learning to the different learning styles of high-and low-achieving students.     

Sex differences in arithmetical performance scores: Central tendency and variability

The present study aimed to analyze sex differences in arithmetical performance in a large-scale sample of 390 children (193 boys) frequenting grades 1–9. Past research in this field has focused primarily on average performance, implicitly assuming homogeneity of variance, for which support is scarce. This article examined sex differences in arithmetical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) in central tendency and variability. Central tendency analyses revealed a male advantage, predominantly in addition and subtraction, from grade 6 onward. Variability analyses showed that sex differences were largest among higher achievers and absent among lower achievers. Thus, central tendency and variability analyses provide complementary information on sex differences in arithmetical performance. In conclusion, sex differences in arithmetical performance exist, but depend on the studied arithmetical operation, age group and achievement level. The present study thereby offers new directions for future research by indicating the need for a broader perspective on sex differences.     

Mathematically gifted students and high achievement: the role of motivation and classroom structure

One of the most intriguing questions for those who study intellectually gifted students is why some of them reach peak performances at school and others don’t. Moderator theories of giftedness assume that domain-specific gifts are transformed into achievement in a process influenced by non-cognitive and environmental variables. Thus, the current study investigates differences in the non-cognitive construct motivation (achievement goals, interest, self-concept, self-efficacy, implicit theories) and perception of classroom environment (classroom structure, class climate) between mathematically gifted high achievers (n = 66) and mathematically gifted students with non-high achievement (n = 144) using a latent variable approach. Gifted high achievers expressed higher levels of motivation than non-high achievers. Furthermore, they perceived a classroom structure that provides more tasks with a focus on learning and more autonomy.     

Low-Achievement Syndrome among Bright Junior High School Boys

Abstract

This investigation was undertaken to determine whether academically bright junior high school male high and low achievers differed significantly on certain non-intellective variables chosen on the basis of related research as being especially promising as significant factors. The School Interest Inventory, the Minnesota Counseling Inventory, and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule were administered to 284 academically bright junior high school high- and low-achieving boys to determine whether the two groups differed significantly on certain of the scales. It was found that the low achievers had described themselves as having weaker achievement motivation, as having less satisfactory family relationships, as being less aggressive, less persistent, and less conforming, and as having stronger heterosexual interests.     

Motivation,Meta-Cognition and Self-Regulation as Predictors of Long Term Educational Attainment

In a longitudinal study, long term educational attainment in secondary education was predicted by motivation, meta-cognition and self-regulation as well as student background variables and prior achievement. The dependent variables were: (1) the position in the fifth grade of the two highest tracks; (2) the choice of examination subjects; and (3) the mean achievement in the fifth grade in the chosen subjects. The position-variable correlates most strongly with the prognosis given at the end of primary education, and with the combined score on three progress tests taken during the first grade of secondary education. There was a large gender difference in the choice of examination subjects with boys choosing the three science subjects (pure mathematics, physics, chemistry) 30% more often. The choice of these subjects also correlates with the scores on the arithmetic progress test in the first grade and a mathematics test taken in the third grade. Achievement motivation and fear of failure are prominent predictors of the mean achievement in grade 5, as is prior achievement. Surprisingly meta-cognitive and self-regulation variables are hardly related to mean achievement.     

Task-Specific Self-Evaluation as a Measure of Achievement Motivation

The validity of an internalized self-reinforcement paradigm as a model of achievement motivation was investigated with a sample of 230 ninth grade black pupils of an inner-city public school located in a midwestern metropolitan area. If achievement behavior is controlled and sustained by covert internal evaluations of performance, then students who more frequently report positive self-evaluations during some specific school-like task may be predicted to: a.) have higher grade point averages than students who less frequently report self-evaluations of task performance; b.) have lower rates of absence from school than students who less frequently report positive self-evaluations of task performance; c.) have greater levels of expected task performance than students who less frequently report positive self-evaluations of performance; d.) have greater expectations that they will be able to positively evaluate themselves for task performance than students who less frequently report positive self-evaluations; e.) have greater congruence between self-established standards and actual performance. Analyzed by 2-way analysis of variance (self-evaluation x sex), the data supported each of the predictions. The results were interpreted to support the conception of self-evaluations of task performance as a model of achievement motivation. In the absence of external rewards, the student sustains his academic behavior by the quality of the covert self-evaluations of his own performance. The positive or negative value of these evaluations depends on self-established standards. Students who tend to evaluate themselves negatively may do so as a function of arbitrarily high standards. Their performance on academic tasks will be less well sustained and their functioning at consequently lowered levels of achievement. The paper-and-pencil self-reports used in the study yielded results comparable to the elaborate laboratory instrumentation of previous studies.     

Peer-Collaborator Preferences of African American and White Sixth-Graders in Mathematics Classrooms

Abstract

This study focused on academic and social correlates of collaborator preferences of African American and White sixth-graders in mathematics classrooms in fall and spring. Students’ appraisals of emotional risk were examined as a moderator. Nomination procedures identified collaborator preferences, group affiliations, and social centrality; students self-reported engagement and emotional risk; school records provided achievement scores. Results indicated students preferred group affiliates, but not exclusively, as collaborators. Students with greater centrality, achievement, and engagement received more nominations. In the fall, high achievers received more nominations when appraisals of risk were high; whereas, engaged students whose appraisals of risk were low received more nominations. Results are interpreted in relation to coordinating social and academic factors in peer collaboration.     

Behavioral patterns of students under an individualized learning strategy

The study examines the behavioral patterns of high, average and low achievers in classrooms implementing an individualized instructional strategy. The study makes use of an observational instrument modelled on Medely's Personal Record of school Experiences (PROSE). Seventy-two boys and girls chosen from 12 first, second and third grade classrooms were included in the sample; 1/3 were ranked by the teacher as high achievers, 1/3 as average and 1/3 as low achievers. The findings revealed that students spent about 2/3 of their time on independent work; and the time spent interacting with teacher was about equal to the time spent interacting with classmate.The results also showed that interaction patterns between teacher and individual students are related to the student achievement level. In addition, distinctly different work patterns of independent activity were discerned in high and low achievers indicating higher involvement in on-task activities among high students compared with low achievers. Similiar patterns of interaction between students were found for high, average and low achievers demonstrating either on-task or off-task interaction of a verbal nature among students of the same sex. Implications for teachers, teachers trainers and instructional developers are discussed.     

Disentangling the predictive validity of high school grades for academic success in university

To refine selective admission models, we investigate which measure of prior achievement has the best predictive validity for academic success in university. We compare the predictive validity of three core high school subjects to the predictive validity of high school grade point average (GPA) for academic achievement in a liberal arts university programme. Predictive validity is compared between the Dutch pre-university (VWO) and the International Baccalaureate (IB) diploma. Moreover, we study how final GPA is predicted by prior achievement after students complete their first year. Path models were separately run for VWO (n = 314) and IB (n = 113) graduates. For VWO graduates, high school GPA explained more variance than core subject grades in first-year GPA and final GPA. For IB graduates, we found the opposite. Subsequent path models showed that after students’ completion of the first year, final GPA is best predicted by a combination of first-year GPA and high school GPA. Based on our small-scale results, we cautiously challenge the use of high school GPA as the norm for measuring prior achievement. Which measure of prior achievement best predicts academic success in university may depend on the diploma students enter with.     

The effects of cooperative homework on mathematics achievement of Chinese high school students

This study examined the effects of cooperative homework on mathematics achievement, taking into account team characteristics. Results of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that three-member teams high in ability (three high achievers or two high achievers plus one middle/low achiever) seem preferable in organizing cooperative learning for mathematics homework. Middle and low achievers all benefited from cooperative mathematics homework, whereas high achievers did not although they still maintained their top position in mathematics achievement.     

Group outcome: The relationship between group learning outcome,attributional style,academic achievement,and self-concept

Six classes of grade seven students (N = 181) participated in field research which explored the consequences of group outcome (successful, unsuccessful) for individuals learning mathematics cooperatively using Student Teams-Achievement Divisions. In addition, we explored the effects of within-class prior mathematics achievement (low, low-medium, high-medium, high) as well as attributional style (learned-helpless, mastery-oriented). The dependent variables were mathematics achievement, causal attributions, and self-concept. There were two interactions: Group Outcome × Attributional Style on achievement, and Within-Class Prior Mathematics Achievement × Group Outcome on achievement and self-concept. Learned-helpless students from unsuccessful groups learned significantly less than learned-helpless students from successful groups. Low prior achievement students from unsuccessful groups learned significantly less than low prior achievers from successful groups. In contrast, there was no significant relationship between group outcome and individual post-test achievement for mastery-oriented students or for students high in prior within-class achievement.