Three generations of technology-enhanced learning

The purpose of the present paper was to examine three generations of research on technology-mediated learning carried on by the present investigator's research group. The first generation focused on examining computer-supported collaborative learning from the cognitive perspective. The main focus was to examine to what extent knowledge-seeking inquiry elicited conceptual change. Problems of transferring inquiry learning culture from one country to another pushed us to examine social practices and other participatory aspects of learning that had been invisible to cognitive researchers. The second-generation research focused on analyzing patterns of participation in computer-supported collaborative learning. The emerging third generation research aims at overcoming the dichotomy between the cognitive (knowledge acquisition) perspective and socio-cultural (participation) perspective by means of long-standing and deliberate efforts of knowledge-creation, involving what is called objects of activity . Theoretical and methodological implications of the generations are discussed.     

Scaffolding in technology-enhanced learning environments

Scaffolding has proven an especially interesting and promising area for supporting teaching and learning practices. Particular interest has emerged in scaffolding student learning in technology-enhanced environments. In this paper, we discuss how scaffolding is implemented in technology-enhanced environments, provide an overview of scaffolding processes and techniques in various contexts, and then provide empirically based guidelines for designing scaffolding in technological environments. We examine current research to identify two primary design components, cognitive and interface, and suggest how scaffold design might be improved for more effective use by learners. We conclude by identifying practice and research implications.     

Design approaches in technology-enhanced learning

Design is critical to the successful development of any interactive learning environment (ILE). Moreover, in technology-enhanced learning (TEL) the design process requires input from many diverse areas of expertise. As such, anyone undertaking tool development is required to directly address the design challenge from multiple perspectives. We provide a motivation and rationale for design approaches for learning technologies that draws upon Simon's seminal proposition of design science. We then review the application of design experiments and design patterns and argue that a patterns approach has the potential to address many of the critical challenges faced by learning technologists.     

Design-based research and technology-enhanced learning environments

During the past decade, design-based research has demonstrated its potential as a methodology suitable to both research and design of technology-enhanced learning environments (TELEs). In this paper, we define and identify characteristics of design-based research, describe the importance of design-based research for the development of TELEs, propose principles for implementing design-based research with TELEs, and discuss future challenges of using this methodology. More informationa about their work can be found at: http://lpsl.coe.uga.edu.     

Using scenarios to design complex technology-enhanced learning environments

Science Created by You (SCY) learning environments are computer-based environments in which students learn about science topics in the context of addressing a socio-scientific problem. Along their way to a solution for this problem students produce many types of intermediate products or learning objects. SCY learning environments center the entire learning process around creating, sharing, discussing, and re-using these learning objects. This instructional approach requires dedicated instructional designs, which are supplied in the form of what are called pedagogical scenarios. A SCY pedagogical scenario presents the learning process as an organized assembly of elementary learning processes, each associated with a specific learning object and a tool for creating this learning object. Designing a SCY learning environment is basically a two-step procedure: the first step is to select one of the available scenarios, and the second step is to define the domain content. The SCY technical infrastructure then handles the instantiation of the scenario as a SCY computer-based learning environment. In this article we describe the SCY pedagogical design scenarios and report on our experiences in designing four different SCY learning environments.     

Learntime and learning place-focused forward-oriented design for learning in technology-enhanced classrooms

This study reports on a teacher’s ongoing design activities in a fully online language course when the class was in progress. The aims were, firstly, to provide first-hand experience and insight into a teacher’s design work in a real-life, technology-enhanced learning (TEL) classroom; and secondly, to facilitate reflective analysis of the emerging design events. A hermeneutic phenomenological approach was adopted for data collection, and the analysis of data was further aided by the framework of forward-oriented design for learning (Goodyear & Dimitriadis, 2013), which considers educational design as a continuing and forward-looking practice including processes of orchestration, configuration, reflection and re-design. Fifteen design events were collected, which provided a snapshot of how and what design activities emerged from a complex, constantly evolving TEL classroom. The interpretation and analysis reveal insights related to various design processes. The findings highlight the forward-looking, ongoing, process-oriented and cyclical nature of TEL design.     

The foundations and assumptions of technology-enhanced student-centered learning environments

Direct instruction approaches, as well as the design processes that support them, have been criticized for failing to reflect contemporary research and theory in teaching, learning, and technology. Learning systems are needed that encourage divergent reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking. Student-centered learning environments have been touted as a means to support such processes. With the emergence of technology, many barriers to implementing innovative alternatives may be overcome. The purposes of this paper are to review and critically analyze research and theory related to technology-enhanced student-centered learning environments and to identify their foundations and assumptions.     

Visualising the temporal aspects of collaborative inquiry-based learning processes in technology-enhanced physics learning

This study presents new ways of visualising technology-enhanced collaborative inquiry-based learning (CIBL) processes in an undergraduate physics course. The data included screen-capture videos from a technology-enhanced learning environment and audio recordings of discussions between students. We performed a thematic analysis based on the phases of inquiry-based learning (IBL). The thematic analysis was complemented by a content analysis, in which we analysed whether the utilisation of technological tools was on a deep-level, surface-level, or non-existent basis. Student participation was measured in terms of frequency of contributions as well as in terms of impact. We visualised the sequence of the face-to-face interactions of two groups of five students by focussing on the temporal aspects of IBL, technology enhancement and collaborative learning. First, instead of the amount of time the groups spent on a specific IBL phase, the between-group differences in the most frequent transitions between the IBL phases determined their differential progress in the CIBL process. Second, we found that the transitions were triggered by the groups’ ways of utilising technological tools either at the deep level or at the surface level. Finally, we found that the level of participation inequity remained stable throughout the CIBL process. As a result, only some of the members of the groups played a role in the most frequent transitions. Furthermore, this study reveals the need for scaffolds focussing on inquiry, technological and collaborative skills at the beginning of the learning process.     

Transforming learning infrastructures in the social sciences through flexible and interactive technology-enhanced learning

The changing higher educational landscape in Europe creates new learning infrastructures and transforms existing ones. Students are thus provided with new possibilities and challenges. Through the case study of a newly developed common curriculum for the social sciences of a public university in Austria, this article discusses the interacting social agents, elements, and tools of a flexible and interactive technology-enhanced learning model. In doing so, the transnational, national, and local infrastructural conditions and challenges are critically examined from a socio-technological perspective. Selected evaluation and survey results highlight students’ learning practices, usage behavior, and suggestions to improve their learning situation. The article concludes that student-centered learning models focusing on flexibility and interactivity can support the stable implementation of a common curriculum and its technology-enhanced learning infrastructure for the social sciences at public universities with high student numbers.     

Designing for communication at work: A case for technology-enhanced boundary objects

In this article we conceptualise the challenges of communication between a mortgage company and its customers in terms of crossing boundaries between communities. Through an ethnographic study we first address the question: what are the challenges of communication between sales agents and customers of a mortgage company around mathematical artefacts? Insight into these challenges formed the basis for an intervention in which we designed technology-enhanced boundary objects (TEBOs) that were reconfigurations of problematic symbolic artefacts. Secondly, we ask what the sales agents learned from the intervention. The data suggest that the intervention with the TEBOs helped employees to develop a better understanding of the mathematics behind the mortgages they sold, and to improve communication with their customers.     

Measuring cognitive load and cognition: metrics for technology-enhanced learning

This critical and reflective literature review examines international research published over the last decade to summarise the different kinds of measures that have been used to explore cognitive load and critiques the strengths and limitations of those focussed on the development of direct empirical approaches. Over the last 40?years, cognitive load theory has become established as one of the most successful and influential theoretical explanations of cognitive processing during learning. Despite this success, attempts to obtain direct objective measures of the theory's central theoretical construct – cognitive load – have proved elusive. This obstacle represents the most significant outstanding challenge for successfully embedding the theoretical and experimental work on cognitive load in empirical data from authentic learning situations. Progress to date on the theoretical and practical approaches to cognitive load are discussed along with the influences of individual differences on cognitive load in order to assess the prospects for the development and application of direct empirical measures of cognitive load especially in technology-rich contexts.     

Combining feminist pedagogy and transactional distance to create gender-sensitive technology-enhanced learning

In this paper, we argue for a new synthesis of two pedagogic theories: feminist pedagogy and transactional distance, which explain why and how distance education has been such a positive system for women in a national distance learning university. We illustrate this with examples of positive action initiatives for women. The concept of transactional distance allows us to explore distance as a form of psychological and communication space, not simply of geographical distance. Feminist pedagogy, on the other hand, has recognised the importance of gender in structuring disciplines as well as teaching strategies. Both theories implicitly position the face-to-face classroom as the ideal learning environment, with the implication that distance learning has to produce a deficient environment. We argue that the evidence for women does not support this and present examples of feminist distance learning provision that has offered successful technology-enhanced learning and educational opportunities.     

The effects of achievement goals and self-regulated learning behaviors on reading comprehension in technology-enhanced learning environments

Studies examining students’ achievement goals, cognitive engagement strategies and performance have found that achievement goals tend to predict classes of cognitive strategy use which predict performance on measures of learning. These studies have led to deeper theoretical understanding, but their reliance on self-report data limit the conclusions that can be drawn. We employed a behavioral approach instead and assessed learning processes by logging learners’ behaviors as they used educational technology. We examined the relationship between achievement goals, strategy use, and comprehension scores of 160 undergraduates who studied a hypertext passage in a technology-enhanced learning environment (TELE) equipped with tools that support learning behaviors including highlighting, taking notes, review of annotations, seeking additional information and monitoring understanding. Results of a path analysis indicated that higher mastery goals predicted more information-seeking and note-taking and marginally more monitoring of learning. Performance avoidance goals negatively predicted note-taking and information-seeking. Performance approach goals did not predict the behaviors we traced. Of the behaviors we traced, highlighting and monitoring predicted increases in comprehension scores. A behavioral approach to assessing learning processes confirmed only a subset of paths from achievement goals to learning processes to learning outcomes originally discovered with self-report data.     

Favouring reflexivity in technology-enhanced learning systems: towards smart uses of traces

During learning activities, reflexive processes allow learners to realise what they have done, understand why, decide on new actions and gain motivation. They help learners to regulate their actions by themselves, that is, to develop metacognitive regulation skills. Computer environments can support reflexive processes to support human learning, for example by analysing traces of learner activity and providing synthetic views by the way of indicators. Nevertheless, traces are underused in technology-enhanced learning (TEL) systems. In this article, we draw up the potential and limits of TEL systems based on traces for reflexive purposes. We then highlight the characteristics which TEL systems should have to use traces to foster reflexivity. We finally discuss how systems could enrich the self-confrontation process with traces.     

A card game for designing activities for technology-enhanced learning in higher education

Education and Information Technologies - The importance of providing mechanisms and tools that effectively support the transition from implicit to explicit representations of Learning Design has...     

The role of academic management in implementing technology-enhanced learning in higher education

ABSTRACT

This article addresses how technology-enhanced learning (TEL) is implemented in higher education institutions. The study is based on data collected from a nationwide survey and semi-structured interviews with academic managers. The findings suggest that: (1) members of the academic management staff have limited knowledge of institutional strategies; (2) there is a gap between what academic managers believe they do to support and implement TEL and what other academic staff perceive them to actually do; and (3) TEL is seldom discussed during performance assessment reviews. In addition, the study reveals that academic managers have different understandings of the use of educational technology. Those differences appear to be closely related to the individual managers’ assessment of TEL’s role in supporting teaching.     

Disclosure of students’ mathematical reasoning through collaborative technology-enhanced learning environment

Education and Information Technologies - We focus on students’ mathematical reasoning in a technology-enhanced collaborative learning environment. We adopt a dialogical approach to analyze...     

Scaffolding students' use of learner-generated content in a technology-enhanced inquiry learning environment

Having students inspect and use each other's work is a promising way to advance inquiry-based science learning. Research has nevertheless shown that additional guidance is needed for students to take full advantage of the work produced by their peers. The present study investigated whether scaffolding through an integrated support tool could bring about the desired effect. This tool was embedded in an online inquiry learning environment and outlined the steps in searching for information in peer-created concept maps. It also contained specific directions to assess the quality of the retrieved information. The effectiveness of this search guidance tool was investigated during an inquiry-based science project. Main results indicated that high school students who were supported by the tool (n?=?19) developed a more differentiated and interconnected conceptual understanding than students who did not receive this scaffold (n?=?23). However, the search guidance tool also seemed to put additional demands on students' self-regulatory abilities, and might therefore require some practice or regulatory support to reach its full potential.     

Rethinking classroom-oriented instructional development models to mediate instructional planning in technology-enhanced learning environments

Although classroom-oriented instructional development (ID) models have the potential to help teachers think and plan for effective instruction with technology, research studies have shown that they are not widely employed. Many of these models have not factored in the complexities that teachers faced when planning for instruction in technology-enhanced learning environments (TELE). They also fail to facilitate teachers’ critical re-examination of their existing practices and exploration of other practices to take up the affordances of technologies for effective instruction. Adopting an activity theoretical perspective towards instructional planning in the TELE, this paper examines two existing ID models: Reiser and Dick [1996. Instructional planning: A guide for teachers. Boston: Allen and Bacon] and Morrison, Ross, and Kemp [2004. Designing effective instruction (4th ed.) New York: Wiley]. It then constructs a classroom-oriented expansive and reflective ID model that: (1) facilitates the teacher's re-examination of their existing practices to identify contradictions in his/her instructional planning process in the TELE; (2) treats the ID elements in a nonlinear and non-sequential way; (3) accounts for the decisions made by other participants in the TELE, especially students and other teachers; (4) supports teachers’ formulation of solutions to the contradictions and transforms practices to take up the affordances of technology in the TELE; and (5) recognizes the need for teachers to move beyond the current activity by reflecting upon it so as to enable the emergence of new norms of practice.