Using searcher simulations to redesign a polyrepresentative implicit feedback interface

Information seeking is traditionally conducted in environments where search results are represented at the user interface by a minimal amount of meta-information such as titles and query-based summaries. The goal of this form of presentation is to give searchers sufficient context to help them make informed interaction decisions without overloading them cognitively. The principle of polyrepresentation [Ingwersen, P. (1996). Cognitive perspectives of information retrieval interaction: elements of a cognitive IR theory. Journal of Documentation 52, 3–50] suggests that information retrieval (IR) systems should provide and use different cognitive structures during acts of communication to reduce the uncertainty associated with interactive IR. In previous work we have created content-rich search interfaces that implement an aspect of polyrepresentative theory, and are capable of displaying multiple representations of the retrieved documents simultaneously at the results interface. Searcher interaction with content-rich interfaces was used as implicit relevance feedback (IRF) to construct modified queries. These interfaces have been shown to be successful in experimentation with human subjects but we do not know whether the information was presented in a way that makes good use of the display space, or positioned most useful components in easily accessible locations, for use in IRF. In this article we use simulations of searcher interaction behaviour as design tools to determine the most rational interface design for when IRF is employed. This research forms part of the iterative design of interfaces to proactively support searchers.     

Uncertainty in information seeking and retrieval: A study in an academic environment

This research focuses specifically on uncertainty and information seeking in a digital environment. In this research we argue that different types of uncertainty are associated with the information seeking process and that, with the proliferation of new and different search tools, sources and channels, uncertainty, positive/desirable or negative/undesirable, continues to be a significant factor in the search process. Users may feel uncertain at any stage of the information search and retrieval process and uncertainty may remain even after completion of the process resulting in what may be called persistent uncertainty. An online questionnaire was used to collect data from users in the higher education sector. There were three parts to the questionnaire focusing on: information seeking activities, information seeking problems, and access to specific information channels or sources. Quantitative analysis was carried out on the data collected through the online questionnaire. A total of 668 responses were returned from the chosen user categories of academic staff, research staff and research students. This research has shown that there are some information seeking activities and information seeking problems that are the most common causes of uncertainty among significant number of users from different disciplines, age, gender, ICT skills, etc. This is also the case with respect to access to and use of specific information sources/channels, although the degrees of uncertainty in relation are relatively small. Possible implications of this study and further research issues are indicated.     

The role of the internet in information seeking. Putting the networked services in context

The author explores the place of the internet among other sources and channels in information seeking. Both qualitative and quantitative data were combined in the study. In 1997, the author conducted 23 theme interviews in Tampere, Finland, Secondly, the data of the national survey on the use of information technology at Finnish households conducted in 1996, based on the interviews of 2360 persons, aged 10–74 yr, were utilized. Both the features of job-related and nonwork information seeking will be discussed; however, the emphasis is on the latter. The conceptual framework of the study draws on the findings of the studies of computer-mediated communication and the uses and gratifications approach; the ideas of the ‘media richness’ theory and the ‘social influence’ theory are also utilized. E-mail and WWW appeared to be the most frequently used services in information seeking, but discussion groups and IRC were also utilized to some extent. The major research criteria for preferring the internet are the (relative) easiness of accessing a huge amount of data, savings in time and money, the opportunity to consult a number of experts simultaneously and a greater independence of certain time and place in information seeking. Thus far, the internet has not been able to supplant other sources and channels but rather complements them. This is evident, for example, in the utilization of electronic newspapers in the search for orienting information.     

Information navigation on the web by clustering and summarizing query results

We report our experience with a novel approach to interactive information seeking that is grounded in the idea of summarizing query results through automated document clustering. We went through a complete system development and evaluation cycle: designing the algorithms and interface for our prototype, implementing them and testing with human users. Our prototype acted as an intermediate layer between the user and a commercial Internet search engine (AltaVista), thus allowing searches of the significant portion of World Wide Web. In our final evaluation, we processed data from 36 users and concluded that our prototype improved search performance over using the same search engine (AltaVista) directly. We also analyzed effects of various related demographic and task related parameters.     

Do your friends make you smarter?: An analysis of social strategies in online information seeking

Prior research in the social search space has focused on the informational benefits of collaborating with others during web and workplace information seeking. However, social interactions, especially during complex tasks, can have cognitive benefits as well. Our goal in this paper is to document the methods and outcomes of using social resources to help with exploratory search tasks. We used a talk-aloud protocol and video capture to explore the actions of eight subjects as they completed two “Google-hard” search tasks. Task questions were alternated between a Social and Non-Social Condition. The Social Condition restricted participants to use only social resources—search engines were not allowed. The Non-Social Condition permitted normal web-based information sources, but restricted the use of social tools.     

网络数据库历史记录界面设计

历史记录能够支持用户的信息检索和使用。通过对用户利用历史记录检索信息行为的研究,揭示了用户在网络数据库检索信息的过程中需要历史记录。目的是建立一个基于网络数据库用户需求的历史记录的理论框架,进而开发出一些界面设计的工具。     

Semantic annotation based exploratory search for information analysts

The system presented in this article aims to improve information access through the use of semantic annotation utilizing a non-traditional approach. Instead of applying semantic annotations to enhance the internal information access mechanisms, we use them to empower the user of an information access system through an innovative named entity-based user interface – NameSieve. NameSieve was built to support an intelligence analyst during the process of exploratory search, an advanced type of search requiring multiple iterations of retrieval interleaved with browsing and analyzing the retrieved information. The proposed approach was implemented in the NameSieve system so that the system can transparently present a summary of search results in the form of entity “clouds.” Therefore, these clouds allow the analyst to further explore the results in a novel manner, acting together as a faceted browsing interface. We ran a user study (with ten subjects) to examine the effect of NameSieve, and the study results reported in the paper demonstrate that this new way of applying semantic annotation information was actively used and was evaluated positively by the subjects. It enabled the subjects to work more productively and bring back most relevant documents.     

Searching the Web: operator assistance required

This study examines the effects of the search interface and Boolean logic training on user search performance and satisfaction. We compared the use of an assisted search tool to that of a simple search interface like those typically found at commercial search engine sites. We found that the assisted search tool had a significant positive effect on performance, satisfaction, and confidence. Promoting the use of advanced search features is therefore in the best interest of both Web search providers and users. In the absence of an assisted interface, a simple interface coupled with Boolean logic training was also an effective means for improving user performance. Given that most searchers choose to use the simple search box, it is important to provide them with applicable training to promote the effective use of the search tool. Interestingly, coupling the assisted interface with Boolean training was no more effective than either treatment alone.     

Model-driven formative evaluation of exploratory search: A study under a sensemaking framework

The evaluation of exploratory search relies on the ongoing paradigm shift from focusing on the search algorithm to focusing on the interactive process. This paper proposes a model-driven formative evaluation approach, in which the goal is not the evaluation of a specific system, per se, but the exploration of new design possibilities. This paper gives an example of this approach where a model of sensemaking was used to inform the evaluation of a basic exploratory search system(s) in the context of a sensemaking task. The model suggested that, rather than just looking at simple search performance measures, we should examine closely the interwoven, interactive processes of both representation construction and information seeking. Participants were asked to make sense of an unfamiliar topic using an augmented query-based search system. The processes of representation construction and information seeking were captured and analyzed using data from experiment notes, interviews, and a system log. The data analysis revealed users’ sources of ideas for structuring representations and a tightly coupled relationship between search and representation construction in their exploratory searches. For example, users strategically used search to find useful structure ideas instead of just accumulating information facts. Implications for improving current search systems and designing new systems are discussed.     

Evaluating collaborative information-seeking interfaces with a search-oriented inspection method and re-framed information seeking theory

Despite the many implicit references to the social contexts of search within information seeking and retrieval research, there has been relatively little work that has specifically investigated the additional requirements for collaborative information-seeking interfaces. Here, we re-assess an existing analytical inspection framework, designed for individual information seeking, and then apply it to evaluate a recent collaborative information-seeking interface: SearchTogether. The framework was built upon two models of solitary information seeking, and so as part of the re-assessment we first re-frame the models for collaborative contexts. We re-frame a model of search tactics, providing revised definitions that consider known collaborators. We then re-frame a model of searcher profiles to analyse support for different group dynamics. After presenting an analysis of SearchTogether, we reflect on its accuracy, showing that the framework identified eight known truths, eight new insights, and no known-to-be-untrue insights into the design. We conclude that the framework: (a) can still be applied to collaborative information-seeking interfaces; (b) can successfully produce additional requirements for collaborative information-seeking interfaces; and (c) can successfully model different dynamics of collaborating searchers.     

Towards a model for spoken conversational search

Conversation is the natural mode for information exchange in daily life, a spoken conversational interaction for search input and output is a logical format for information seeking. However, the conceptualisation of user–system interactions or information exchange in spoken conversational search (SCS) has not been explored. The first step in conceptualising SCS is to understand the conversational moves used in an audio-only communication channel for search. This paper explores conversational actions for the task of search. We define a qualitative methodology for creating conversational datasets, propose analysis protocols, and develop the SCSdata. Furthermore, we use the SCSdata to create the first annotation schema for SCS: the SCoSAS, enabling us to investigate interactivity in SCS. We further establish that SCS needs to incorporate interactivity and pro-activity to overcome the complexity that the information seeking process in an audio-only channel poses. In summary, this exploratory study unpacks the breadth of SCS. Our results highlight the need for integrating discourse in future SCS models and contributes the advancement in the formalisation of SCS models and the design of SCS systems.     

Mix and match: combining terms and operators for successful Web searches

This paper presents a detailed analysis of the structure and components of queries written by experimental participants in a study that manipulated two factors found to affect end-user information retrieval performance: training in Boolean logic and the type of search interface. As reported previously, we found that both Boolean training and the use of an assisted interface improved the participants' ability to find correct responses to information requests. Here, we examine the impact of these training and interface manipulations on the Boolean operators and search terms that comprise the submitted queries. Our analysis shows that both Boolean training and the use of an assisted interface improved the participants' ability to correctly utilize various operators. An unexpected finding is that this training also had a positive impact on term selection. The terms and, to a lesser extent, the operators comprising a query were important factors affecting the participants' performance in query tasks. Our findings demonstrate that even small training interventions can improve the users' search performance and highlight the need for additional information retrieval research into how search interfaces can provide superior support to today's untrained users of the Web.     

Real time search on the web: Queries,topics, and economic value

Real time search is an increasingly important area of information seeking on the Web. In this research, we analyze 1,005,296 user interactions with a real time search engine over a 190 day period. Using query log analysis, we investigate searching behavior, categorize search topics, and measure the economic value of this real time search stream. We examine aggregate usage of the search engine, including number of users, queries, and terms. We then classify queries into subject categories using the Google Directory topical hierarchy. We next estimate the economic value of the real time search traffic using the Google AdWords keyword advertising platform. Results shows that 30% of the queries were unique (used only once in the entire dataset), which is low compared to traditional Web searching. Also, 60% of the search traffic comes from the search engine’s application program interface, indicating that real time search is heavily leveraged by other applications. There are many repeated queries over time via these application program interfaces, perhaps indicating both long term interest in a topic and the polling nature of real time queries. Concerning search topics, the most used terms dealt with technology, entertainment, and politics, reflecting both the temporal nature of the queries and, perhaps, an early adopter user-based. However, 36% of the queries indicate some geographical affinity, pointing to a location-based aspect to real time search. In terms of economic value, we calculate this real time search stream to be worth approximately US $33,000,000 (US $33 M) on the online advertising market at the time of the study. We discuss the implications for search engines and content providers as real time content increasingly enters the main stream as an information source.     

基于ELIS模型的小学生日常生活信息查寻行为实证研究

[目的/意义]旨在为基于儿童信息素养教育的信息服务系统设计提供参考。[方法/过程]采用关键事件访谈法和艾森克儿童人格测试量表收集数据,基于ELIS模型分析了小学生的日常信息需求、信息查寻渠道、查询过程及其影响因素等,剖析了人格特征对小学生查询行为的影响。[结果/结论]小学生日常生活信息查寻行为呈现偏好独立查寻、偏好手机查寻渠道等特征;人格特征影响着小学生日常生活信息查寻行为的主动性和系统性,体现在查寻态度、查寻方式和查寻渠道等各方面。     

基于元分析的用户在线健康信息搜寻行为影响因素研究

【目的/意义】针对现有用户在线健康信息搜寻行为的实证研究中存在的结果不一致现象,对该领域相关 研究进行梳理验证,旨在明确影响用户在线健康信息搜寻行为的真正因素以及关键调节变量,揭示用户在线健康 信息搜寻行为产生的直接原因,为完善用户在线健康信息搜寻行为理论体系及相关领域的后续研究提供借鉴。【方 法/过程】选取 25篇符合标准的中外文献进行元分析,探究影响因素及其影响程度,从国内外研究情境、用户的社 会属性与健康状况三个维度探讨影响因素与在线健康信息搜寻行为间的调节效应。【结果/结论】结果表明,10个因 素对用户在线健康信息搜寻行为有显著正向影响,其中信息质量的影响强度最高,感知风险、信任、自我效能及感 知有用性对在线健康信息搜寻行为的影响强度较弱,同时验证了国内外研究情境、用户的社会属性与健康状况对 在线健康信息搜寻行为具有调节作用。【创新/局限】本文采用元分析方法,通过对前人研究结果的再分析,得到更 加精准的研究结论,是对在线健康信息搜寻领域现有研究的有力补充。但对元分析方法的应用还较为单一,未涉 及各影响因素间的关系,有待后续进一步研究。     

社会合作信息查寻与检索:机制、模型与特征

通过典型人肉搜索案例"辽宁女事件"的剖析,揭示人肉搜索的社会合作信息查寻与检索性质;基于该案例分析社会合作信息查寻与检索过程机制,抽象出社会合作查寻与检索的框架模型。概括总结了社会合作查寻与检索的基本特征:搜索主体的群体自主性,搜索对象的全面性,搜索过程的迭代反馈相干性和智能性,搜索结果的准确适用性,以及去中心性、共享性及自组织性,并进一步讨论了社会合作信息查寻与检索代表的两种搜索发展模式:以人际关系为基础的智能化搜索模式,以正反馈累积为动力的"再中心化"自组织模式。     

A user-centered approach to evaluating human interaction with Web search engines: an exploratory study

A growing body of studies is developing approaches to evaluating human interaction with Web search engines, including the usability and effectiveness of Web search tools. This study explores a user-centered approach to the evaluation of the Web search engine Inquirus – a Web meta-search tool developed by researchers from the NEC Research Institute. The goal of the study reported in this paper was to develop a user-centered approach to the evaluation including: (1) effectiveness: based on the impact of users' interactions on their information problem and information seeking stage, and (2) usability: including screen layout and system capabilities for users. Twenty-two volunteers searched Inquirus on their own personal information topics. Data analyzed included: (1) user pre- and post-search questionnaires and (2) Inquirus search transaction logs. Key findings include: (1) Inquirus was rated highly by users on various usability measures, (2) all users experienced some level of shift/change in their information problem, information seeking, and personal knowledge due to their Inquirus interaction, (3) different users experienced different levels of change/shift, and (4) the search measure precision did not correlate with other user-based measures. Some users experienced major changes/shifts in various user-based variables, such as information problem or information seeking stage with a search of low precision and vice versa. Implications for the development of user-centered approaches to the evaluation of Web and information retrieval (IR) systems and further research are discussed.     

Digital Images for the Information Professional,by Melissa M. Terras. Burlington,VT: Ashgate, 2008. 245 pp. $114.95 cloth. ISBN 978-0-7546-4860-4 (cloth)

Privacy has largely been equated with every individual's right to privacy. Accordingly, current efforts to protect privacy on the Internet have sought anonymity by breaking, where possible, links with personally identifiable information (PII)—all uses of aggregated data stripped of PII are considered legitimate. This article argues that we need to use a broader concept, general or group identifying information (GII), because even aggregated data stripped of PII violate privacy at the community level. The search engine companies, or anyone else with access to their log files, can use these data to generate a moment-by-moment view of what is on the collective mind. Such a view can be used in a variety of ways, some with deep economic and even political impact. In order to frame this discussion, it is necessary to examine some of the realities of the search engine-mediated associative interface to the World Wide Web. While this interface has enormous benefits for the networked world, it also fundamentally changes a number of issues underlying various current debates about Internet governance.     

Who Searches the Searchers? Community Privacy in the Age of Monolithic Search Engines

Privacy has largely been equated with every individual's right to privacy. Accordingly, current efforts to protect privacy on the Internet have sought anonymity by breaking, where possible, links with personally identifiable information (PII)—all uses of aggregated data stripped of PII are considered legitimate. This article argues that we need to use a broader concept, general or group identifying information (GII), because even aggregated data stripped of PII violate privacy at the community level. The search engine companies, or anyone else with access to their log files, can use these data to generate a moment-by-moment view of what is on the collective mind. Such a view can be used in a variety of ways, some with deep economic and even political impact. In order to frame this discussion, it is necessary to examine some of the realities of the search engine-mediated associative interface to the World Wide Web. While this interface has enormous benefits for the networked world, it also fundamentally changes a number of issues underlying various current debates about Internet governance.     

Implicit information need as explicit problems,help, and behavioral signals

Information need is one of the most fundamental aspects of information seeking, which traditionally conceptualizes as the initiation phase of an individual’s information seeking behavior. However, the very elusive and inexpressible nature of information need makes it hard to elicit from the information seeker or to extract through an automated process. One approach to understanding how a person realizes and expresses information need is to observe their seeking behaviors, to engage processes with information retrieval systems, and to focus on situated performative actions. Using Dervin’s Sense-Making theory and conceptualization of information need based on existing studies, the work reported here tries to understand and explore the concept of information need from a fresh methodological perspective by examining users’ perceived barriers and desired helps in different stages of information search episodes through the analyses of various implicit and explicit user search behaviors. In a controlled lab study, each participant performed three simulated online information search tasks. Participants’ implicit behaviors were collected through search logs, and explicit feedback was elicited through pre-task and post-task questionnaires. A total of 208 query segments were logged, along with users’ annotations on perceived problems and help. Data collected from the study was analyzed by applying both quantitative and qualitative methods. The findings identified several behaviors – such as the number of bookmarks, query length, number of the unique queries, time spent on search results observed in the previous segment, the current segment, and throughout the session – strongly associated with participants’ perceived barriers and help needed. The findings also showed that it is possible to build accurate predictive models to infer perceived problems of articulation of queries, useless and irrelevant information, and unavailability of information from users’ previous segment, current segment, and whole session behaviors. The findings also demonstrated that by combining perceived problem(s) and search behavioral features, it was possible to infer users’ needed help(s) in search with a certain level of accuracy (78%).