Developing and validating an instrument measuring school leadership

In this study, we developed and validated an instrument that researchers can use to measure the collective effort of principals and teachers who excise their own unique leadership to generate (integrated) school leadership. Based on 644 teachers, we found sound psychometric properties of the scales of the instrument and the instrument as a whole. We also explored the predictive properties of the instrument in predicting student achievement at the school level. Based on 53 schools, we found that the instrument can indeed measure the kind of school leadership that really matters to student achievement. When predicting student achievement (at the school level), the instrument tends to be more sensitive to more difficult school subjects (e.g. mathematics), implying that improvement in school leadership would lead to larger improvement in student achievement (at the school level) in more difficult school subjects.     

Adaptability among science teachers in schools: A multi-nation examination of its role in school outcomes

Adaptability helps teachers to navigate change, novelty, and uncertainty at work. We sought to extend understanding of adaptability by considering it at the school-level in 2189 high schools across eight nations. We investigated whether two job demands (disruptive student behavior, student diversity) and a job resource (teacher collaboration) are associated with school-average teacher adaptability. We also examined the association that school-average teacher adaptability has with teacher self-efficacy and, in turn, student self-efficacy. Findings showed, for example, that greater school-average teacher adaptability was positively associated with teacher self-efficacy and, in turn, student self-efficacy. Findings were similar across the eight nations.     

The motivation of boys who leave school early: impact of teachers

How well boys perform during the compulsory years of schooling is a significant concern with considerable research highlighting that boys experience problems at school in terms of learning, behaviour, achievement and participation when compared to girls. In particular, the retention of boys to Year 12 has been problematic. This article reports on a study exploring boys’ motivations to leave school early on the basis of an opportunistic sample of 22 boys aged 16 in Queensland. The article briefly explores the issues surrounding boys’ early school leaving, and makes links between their experiences with teachers at school to their early school leaving decision.     

Examining the Performance Standards for In-Service Teachers: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Assessment of Teachers' NETS-T Expertise

The survey Performance Standards for In-service Teachers is widely used to help describe teacher skills relating to instructional technology for assessment or planning of professional development. It is based on the six constructs of the National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers, and though used broadly in a variety of contexts, it does not appear to have undergone significant independent evaluation of its psychometric properties. Our analysis found that all six subscales possessed strong internal consistency (all α > 0.93). A subsequent confirmatory factor analysis supported both its current six-factor structure as well as a more parsimonious one-factor model.     

Psychometric Properties of an Instrument to Measure Social and Pedagogical School Climate Among Teachers (PESOC)

This study investigated the psychometric properties of a teacher-reported version of a Swedish school climate instrument called the Pedagogical and Social Climate (PESOC), which consists of 95 items covering cultural, structural and social factors. A sample of 348 teachers from 19 Swedish secondary schools was used. Multilevel confirmatory factor analysis conducted within a structural equation modelling framework indicated that the PESOC had a two-factor structure at the teacher level and a one-factor at the school level. The PESOC’s convergent validity was supported by the school-level correlations between PESOC and another established instrument (i.e., the Team Climate Inventory). Further validation studies of PESOC are needed with larger, more representative samples, and with information on important outcomes such as student achievement and wellbeing.     

National Profiles of classroom quality and family involvement: A multilevel examination of proximal influences on Head Start children's school readiness

Guided by a developmental and ecological model, the study employed latent profile analysis to identify a multilevel typology of family involvement and Head Start classroom quality. Using the nationally representative Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES 1997; N = 1870), six multilevel latent profiles were estimated, characterized by distinct patterns of parent school involvement, parent home involvement, and classroom quality. The most prevalent profile (47.5% of children within the national sample) reflected low levels of parent home and school involvement practices, but above average classroom quality. Significant differences were found among the six profiles on (a) child, family, classroom, and program demographic characteristics, and (b) children's literacy, language, mathematics, and social skills at the end of children's first Head Start year. The strongest positive associations between profile membership and child outcomes were seen for children in profiles characterized by high levels of parent involvement and above-average levels of Head Start classroom quality, although there were several nuanced distinctions that emerged. Children within the profile characterized by low parent involvement and low classroom quality exhibited lower academic and social outcomes relative to children in higher quality profiles. Implications for early childhood practice, policy, and research are discussed.     

《大学生主观幸福感问卷》的编制

过去国内对主观幸福感(包括大学生)的研究更多是直接引用或修订国外编制的问卷或量表.所以引用过程中民族个性差异,人口统计量的差异,文化差异以及翻译等额外变量使得研究结论的准确性受到质疑,所以编制适用于中国大学生特点的问卷对主观幸福感的本土化研究有着重要意义.     

The well‐being of teachers in Flanders: the importance of a supportive school culture

Research on the well‐being of teachers was conducted at the request of the Department of Education in Flanders, Belgium. The goals were: (1) to construct an instrument for the Education Inspectorate; and (2) to conduct a survey in order to identify school‐related conditions relevant for teachers’ professional well‐being. Based on literature and panel discussions with teachers and principals, a questionnaire was constructed, tested and subdivided in subscales following a factor analysis. The questionnaire was administered to a representative sample of elementary (covering both nursery and primary schools, children aged 3–12) and secondary school teachers. A multilevel analysis reveals how differences in scores can be explained at school level.     

Assessing the impact of learning environments: How to use student ratings of classroom or school characteristics in multilevel modeling

In educational research, characteristics of the learning environment (e.g., social climate, instructional quality, goal orientation) are often assessed via student reports, and their associations with outcome variables such as school achievement or student motivation then tested. However, studying the effects of the learning environment presents a series of methodological challenges. This article discusses three crucial elements in research that uses student reports to gauge the impact of the learning environment on student outcomes. First, from a conceptual point of view, it is argued that ratings aggregated at the relevant level (e.g., class or school level), and not individual student ratings, are of primary interest in these studies. Second, the reliability of aggregated student ratings must be routinely assessed before these perceptions are related to outcome variables. Third, researchers conducting multilevel analyses need to make very clear which centering option was chosen for the predictor variables. This article shows that conclusions about the impact of learning environments can be substantially affected by the choice of a specific centering option for the individual student ratings.     

Exploring the nature of divergent thinking: A multilevel analysis

In this study, a large sample with a clustered data structure from an educational context was utilized to analyze the relationship between cognitive abilities, school type, gender, and divergent thinking. The sample comprised 1098 students in 55 classrooms. A sequence of nested multilevel regression analyses revealed that processing capacity, as a core component of intelligence, as well as processing speed shared a significant amount of variance with divergent thinking. Additionally, school type affected divergent thinking even when controlling for intellectual abilities. Furthermore, a significant gender difference in divergent thinking favouring females was found. Gender differences as well as the effect of processing capacity and processing speed varied across classrooms, reflecting differences in the classroom environment. The nature of the relationships of cognitive and social factors to divergent thinking was considered.     

Teacher self-efficacy and self-reported cognitive activation and classroom management: A multilevel perspective on the role of school characteristics

In the present study, we consider teachers' self-efficacy as indicator for teacher motivation on the teacher level and at the school-level. We examine the interplay of teachers' individual self-efficacy (subscales classroom management and instruction) with school-level efficacy and more-external school characteristics (collaboration, instructional leadership, and participation) when predicting teachers' self-reported cognitive activation and classroom management. Austrian TALIS 2018 data from 4255 teachers at 246 schools were analyzed. Multilevel analyses revealed relationships between teachers' self-efficacy and self-reported cognitive activation and classroom management both, at the teacher and school levels. For self-reported cognitive activation, no significant context effect or cross-level interaction was found. Classroom management differed depending on whether a teacher was situated in a low- or a high-efficacy school (context effect). Also, teacher collaboration moderated the association of teachers’ self-efficacy and their self-reported classroom management (cross-level interaction). The findings indicate the importance of addressing the school context when investigating teacher self-efficacy.     

An empirical analysis of an alternative configuration of the Academic Motivation Scale

The purpose of this study was to examine an alternative configuration of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS), a psychometric instrument used as a measure of academic motivation in various academic environments. The analyses utilised data from a convenience sample of 2354 business students, broken into two random subsamples of 1177 cases. Exploratory factor analysis of the 28 AMS scale items was conducted on the estimation sample. The results indicated good model fit for a four-factor configuration consisting of amotivation, external regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation as indicated by factor loadings, as well as internal consistency and reliability statistics.

Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the holdout sample to independently assess the construct validity and internal consistency of the item loadings on the reconfigured scale. Results indicated good model fit for the four-factor configuration and a significant loss of fit for competing three- and one-factor models. The uncovered factor structure advances our understanding of how the items on this scale cluster into theoretically meaningful constructs. This knowledge may be utilised in research designed to further assess the impact of motivational states on educational outcomes such as academic performance, absenteeism, dropout rates, etc.     

The development and validation of a scale measuring teacher autonomous behaviour

In the current study a multi‐dimensional scale that measures teacher autonomous behaviour is presented. The scale is applicable across the following educational sectors: primary education, secondary education and vocational education. Based on an elaborate literature study, four theoretically relevant dimensions of teacher autonomous behaviour were derived. Psychometric characteristics of the instrument (note that the terms ‘scale’ and ‘instrument’ are used interchangeably in this article) were tested among a sample of Dutch teachers working in primary, secondary and vocational education (N = 1111). The validity of our instrument was tested in several ways. First, by performing confirmatory factor analysis, we tested the factorial structure, which confirmed the hypothesised four dimensions: (1) primary work processes in the class; (2) curriculum implementation; (3) participation in decision making at school; (4) professional development. Thereafter, we calculated the scale's reliability, which appeared to be excellent. In addition, we tested for measurement invariance by cross‐validating the study in the educational sectors mentioned above. Also, the convergent, divergent and predictive validity was investigated. Teacher autonomy appeared to predict workplace learning, more specifically experimenting, reflecting and school development. Finally, we investigated whether transformational leadership can facilitate teacher autonomy, which appeared to be the case. The results empirically confirm the four dimensions of teacher autonomous behaviour, which we derived from theory, and offer solid proof of the psychometric properties of our instrument. The instrument can be used by school leaders and policy makers to monitor autonomous behaviour. More generally, the development and use of this instrument helps us understand teacher autonomous behaviour and teacher professionalism.     

父亲攻击型教养方式问卷的初步编制

为了解家庭教育中“攻击性”这一特征,有针对性地为实施健康家庭教育提供依据,在文献分析、访谈、开放式问卷等方法的基础上收集项目,采用探索性因素分析获得父亲攻击型教养方式七因子模型：督促攻击、默许对朋辈的攻击、责罚、惩罚对长辈的攻击、默许对长辈的攻击、攻击示范、攻击性教养观。此模型在验证性因素分析中得到了验证,具有良好的信度和效度,这对于我国家庭教养方式本土化研究提供了一定理论基础。     

Student teachers’ skills in the implementation of collaborative learning: A multilevel approach

This study explores the development of student teachers’ skills in implementing collaborative learning (CL) using a multilevel repeated measures design. Participants were 105 pre-service teachers that were trained in CL implementation. The results indicate that student teachers generally perform well in implementing CL. Further, it appears that these skills increase over time, although no linear growth can be found. Student teachers’ skills development appears to be positively connected with their general feeling of teaching efficacy. Surprisingly, training and students’ pedagogical knowledge have no significant impact.     

A longitudinal analysis of gender differences in academic self-concept and language achievement: A multivariate multilevel latent growth approach

This study investigated the development of academic self-concept and language achievement from Grade 7 to Grade 12 by repeated assessment of 2826 Flemish adolescents in 50 secondary schools. Latent growth curve modeling showed that both girls and boys experience a declining academic self-concept during the period of secondary education and that girls declined at a faster rate. Furthermore, girls were shown to have an increase in Dutch language achievement over time, whereas boys showed a decrease in middle years, followed by an increase from Grade 9 on. The multivariate multilevel growth curve model suggested that the evolution of academic self-concept was not related to the evolution in achievement, neither at the individual level, nor at the school level. There is, however, a positive relation between students’ academic self-concept and their achievement, the magnitude of which decreased throughout secondary school. At the school level, the correlation is small, but also positive, except for the girls from Grade 10 on. The results are discussed in relation to the reciprocal effects model and the developmental perspective regarding the self-concept/achievement relation.     

Teacher,classroom, and student growth orientation in mathematics: A multilevel examination of growth goals,growth mindset,engagement, and achievement

This study examined associations between student- (N = 1414), classroom-, and teacher (N = 91) growth orientation and mathematics engagement and achievement using a multilevel model. Results demonstrated positive associations between student growth orientation and mathematics outcomes and positive associations between classroom and teacher growth orientation and mathematics achievement. There was also a marginally significant interaction effect between classroom and teacher growth orientation on classroom engagement. Findings hold relevance for educational interventions surrounding growth constructs and teachers’ personal growth orientation.     

A validated instrument measuring students' perceptions on plastinated and three-dimensional printed anatomy tools

Due to the modernization of the medical curriculum and technological advancements, anatomy education has evolved beyond cadaveric dissection alone. Plastination techniques, three-dimensional (3D) modeling, and 3D printing technologies have progressively gained importance. However, there are limited valid and reliable surveys to evaluate students' perceptions of these new anatomy tools. Hence, this study aimed to develop a validated instrument to measure students' learning satisfaction, self-efficacy, humanistic values, and perceived limitations of plastinated and 3D printed models. A 41-item survey (five-point Likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) was administered to Year 1 undergraduate medical students following a randomized controlled crossover study that evaluated plastinated and 3D printed cardiac and neck models. Ninety-six responses were received, and a factor analysis was performed with the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin sampling adequacy of 0.878. The confirmatory factor analysis yielded a 4-factor, 19 items model that had a good fit with the latent constructs of $x$² (147) = 211.568, P < 0.001, root mean square error of approximation = 0.068, root mean square residual = 0.064, comparative fit index = 0.946, and Tucker Lewis index = 0.937. The Cronbach's alpha for the individual factors ranged from 0.74 to 0.95, indicating good internal consistency. This demonstrated a psychometrically valid and reliable instrument to measure students' perceptions toward plastinated and 3D printed models.     

Optimizing science self-efficacy: A multilevel examination of the moderating effects of anxiety on the relationship between self-efficacy and achievement in science

Extant research has demonstrated that anxiety is negatively associated with self-efficacy, especially in science. However, social cognitive theory also posits that anxiety and self-efficacy are likely to dynamically interact (i.e., moderate), such that a student high in anxiety may not garner the benefits of high self-efficacy. It has been suggested that classrooms may also be characterized in terms of this problematic dynamic, such that class-average anxiety may impede potentially positive effects of class-average self-efficacy. Despite this, very little work has focused on the extent to which anxiety thwarts the positive effects of self-efficacy at either the student- or classroom-level, and none has done so among secondary school students or in science specifically. Thus, the present study examines the main effects of science anxiety and self-efficacy on science achievement, as well as the moderating effects of science anxiety on the relationship between science self-efficacy and achievement, at both the student- and classroom-level. With a sample of N = 1,075 high school students clustered in N = 99 science classrooms, doubly latent multilevel structural equation modelling demonstrated that science self-efficacy positively predicted science achievement at both student- and classroom-levels. Also, at the student-level (but not the classroom-level), science anxiety negatively moderated the effects of science self-efficacy on science achievement, such that students high in self-efficacy with higher anxiety scored lower in science achievement than those with lower anxiety. Interestingly, however, student-level (but not classroom-level) findings also suggested a potentially arousing role of anxiety for students low in self-efficacy. These findings have theoretical implications and suggest that a dual intervention approach (i.e., concurrently promoting science self-efficacy and reducing science anxiety) at student-level and interventions targeting self-efficacy at the classroom-level may be warranted to optimize science achievement.