Examining Instructional Design Principles Applied by Experienced Designers in Practice

There has been ongoing debate regarding the efficacy of teaching instructional design models to novice designers given that experienced instructional designers often use principles and adapted models when they engage in the instructional design problem‐solving process. This study utilized the Delphi technique to identify a core set of guiding principles used by designers in their practice. The purpose of this study was (1) to examine and describe the principles that guided instructional designers’ practice and (2) to identify the extent to which participants’ frames of reference included components of the ADDIE instructional design model. Sixty‐one principles were ultimately identified (reached consensus among the Delphi panel members). Thirty‐two of the principles aligned with the primary components of the design process (e.g., analysis, design, development, and evaluation). Additional principles (n = 29) related to other characteristics of design such as communication, project management, and design characteristics.     

How Instructional Designers Solve Workplace Problems

This naturalistic inquiry investigated how instructional designers engage in complex and ambiguous problem solving across organizational boundaries in two corporations. Participants represented a range of instructional design experience, from novices to experts. Research methods included a participant background survey, observations of problem‐solving activities, in‐depth interviews, and analysis and evaluation of project documents and other tools. The findings revealed differences between experts and novices with regards to tolerance of ambiguity, expectations about their own roles in finding solutions for their clients, adaptability, attention to appropriate details, and management of workplace stress. The contrast between instructional design processes taught in universities and actual workplace practice was noted by both expert and novice participants. Experienced participants demonstrated adaptability in processes and communications to efficiently arrive at viable solutions for their clients. Expectation setting and relationship building emerged as techniques for creating environments supportive of instructional designers' problem‐solving activities.     

Compelling Case Experiences; Performance,Practice, and Application for Emerging Instructional Designers

Instructional design (ID) case studies, which pose authentic ill‐defined design problems in realistic environments, can help instructional design students bridge the gap between novice and expert practice. Over the past three years, we have explored aspects of this educational approach through the development of Web‐based ID cases at the Curry School of Education, University of Virginia. This paper begins with a look at case study methods and how they are used to help students gain experience in professional practice. We describe the design and development of our Web‐based ID Case Competition and follow with a report on the competition involving seven universities. Officials and students felt that the case experience was valuable for developing ID expertise and preparation for professional practice. These advantages, and the opportunity for team collaboration, were noted as motivators for participation. Most of the students were enthusiastic about the inclusion of emergent ID and performance technology issues in the case and felt the experience expanded their knowledge of ID practice and application. We close with a discussion of implications for professional development and recommendations for future development activities.     

The Use of Task Analysis Procedures by Instructional Designers

The purpose of this study was to learn about the use of task analysis procedures by instructional designers. Task analysis is regarded by many to be the most integral part of the instructional design process and the most technical aspect of the instructional designer's job. It is also thought to be the most ambiguous of the instructional design, processes. A questionnaire was developed that surveyed 164 members of the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) and the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) with instructional design responsibilities. This research learned what instructional design activities designers associate with task analysis and the percentage of time instructional designers devote to task analysis. It also learned what task analysis methods are most and least often used by instructional designers and identified those task analysis methods not known by instructional designers. Finally, this study determined how instructional designers learn to conduct task analyses and the factors that impact task analysis practices.     

Knowledge and Skills Needed by Instructional Designers in Higher Education

In this paper, we sought to address the following research question: What knowledge and skills are needed by instructional designers in higher education to be successful in their roles? We interviewed eight instructional designers from across the United States, all working for institutions of higher education. Using the constant comparative method, we analyzed our data to identify relevant themes. Our results suggest that instructional designers in higher education must have a solid foundation in instructional design and learning theory, possess soft skills and technical skills, and have a willingness to learn on the job. Most instructional designers felt their academic backgrounds assisted them with their job roles, and, in particular, valued their professional experiences. Instructional designers in higher education must also keep abreast of multiple emerging information and communication technologies. We provide a discussion to synthesize our findings. The findings are relevant to professionals, professional academic programs, and professional associations.     

Preparing Instructional Designers for Game-Based Learning: Part 2

As noted in part I of this article (published in TechTrends 54(3)), advances in technology continue to outpace research on the design and effectiveness of instructional (digital video) games. In general, instructional designers know little about game development, commercial video game developers know little about training, education and instructional design, and relatively little is understood about how to apply what we know about teaching and learning to optimize game-based learning. In Part I, a panel of recognized and emerging experts in the design of instructional (digital video) games set the context for this three part series and one of four panelists discussed what he believes instructional designers should know about instructional game design (Hirumi, Appleman, Rieber, Van Eck, 2010). In Part II, two faculty members who teach courses on instructional game design presents their perspectives on preparing instructional designers for game-based learning. Part III will present a fourth perspective along with conclusion that compares the four views.     

Preparing Instructional Designers for Game-Based Learning: Part 1

Like many rapidly growing industries, advances in video game technology are far outpacing research on its design and effectiveness. Relatively little is understood about how to apply what we know about teaching and learning to optimize game-based learning. For the most part, instructional designers know little about game development and video game developers may know little about training, education and instructional design. In this three part series of articles, four recognized and emerging experts in instructional game design discuss their perspectives on preparing instructional designers to optimize game-based learning. In Part I, we set the context for the series of articles and one of four faculty members who teach a graduate level course on game design discusses what he believes instructional designers should know about instructional game design based on his experiences. Part II will present alternative perspectives from two additional faculty members who teach courses in instructional game design, and Part III will present a fourth perspective along with conclusion that compares the four views.     

Utilizing Performance Technology to Improve Evaluative Practices of Instructional Designers

Although it is clearly established that an effective instructional systems design (ISD) process requires evaluation, previous studies provide evidence to show that everyday practices of instructional designers do not include sufficient or appropriate evaluation. Research suggests that organizational barriers and lack of support for evaluation are a leading cause of its inadequate usage. Without appropriate and sufficient evaluation practices, it is impossible to maintain the integrity of the systematic quality of ISD and threatens to undermine the entire concept of instructional design. This article first examines the purposes and importance of evaluation. Second, it reviews research that describes the less‐than‐optimal performance of practitioners as it relates to conducting evaluation, along with identifying causes for this performance deficiency. Third, it proposes using a model of human performance technology for improving the environment leading to implementation of evaluation.     

The Education of Instructional Designers: Reflections on the Tripp Paper

In a recent issue of this journal, Steven D. Tripp proposed some innovations in the education of instructional designers based on his analysis of education practices in other design professions. His principal proposals were that students should analyze great instructional designs of the past and that instructional design studios should form part of the educational preparation of students entering the profession. This paper proposes some extensions and modifications to Tripp's original ideas. These include extending his concept of the analysis of great lessons of the past to the analysis of current examples of expert work, the use of an expanded jury system to incorporate peer and practitioner evaluation of students' work, and the criticality of students developing solutions to actual performance problems during the instructional design studio experience. Finally, it is proposed that opportunities for critical reflection on the process of instructional design be built into the studio experience.     

Preparing Instructional Designers for Different Career Environments: A Case Study

The competency requirements, content, culture, and value systems of business and industry career environments can differ significantly from that of the higher education context where instructional design and technology (IDT) students receive their formal training. Therefore, faculty should consider how they might provide flexibility in their programs to allow IDT students to experience the contexts in which they choose to work following graduation. The article reports on the results of a case study of an exemplary IDT program identified through a national survey. The emphases and preparation practices of faculty in the case study program were noted to provide an example of how one program successfully prepares its graduates for a variety of career environments, and specifically for a business and industry environment. By studying the successes and challenges of specific programs, new or existing programs may gain ideas for building or re-working existing programs to better meet the needs of students desiring contextualized preparation for different career environments.     

The Practice of Instructional Consultation

Learned helplessness was the focus of Part I of this series. The concept derives from a perceived inability to control situations that are controllable. Taught helplessness is the focus of Part 2 of this series. It stems from an inability to control situations that are uncontrollable. When factors outside the control of organizational participants teach helplessness, consultant efforts should focus on changing the system and/or the environment rather than on fixing individuals. In order to assist consultants, the purposes of this article are to: (a) differentiate learned and taught helplessness, (b) describe the antecedents and consequences of taught helplessness, and (c) identify strategies individuals can use to create organizations that teach resourcefulness.     

How Designers Make Decisions: A Descriptive Model of Instructional Design for Informal Learning in Museums

In response to a call for theories of instructional design that are grounded in practice, I conducted a naturalistic study of the instructional design process for three permanent museum exhibits. An analysis of the data indicated that design involves a series of decisions, each of which has 4 components: • Design goals: principles to be achieved through the decision process and that must be realized before the choice is considered complete. • Design resources: the materials–both physical and intellectual–available to present information. • Design techniques: the strategies for achieving the goals using the design resources available. • Constraints: outside influences such as budget and schedule that limit the use of resources and techniques to achieve a goal. Each phase in the design process is characterized by certain types of decisions in which one of the four components dominates. Design team members participate to different extents in design decisions based on their roles. In theory, the model should transfer from museum exhibition design to instructional design. Further study would indicate the extent as well as which design decisions are guided by research, theory, or instinct, so we might understand and ultimately improve decisions about instructional programs.     

论海外华文教育学科的实践教学

海外华文教育学科开展实践教学必须要做好如下几点:丰富学科内涵,科学合理定位;科学设置培养方案,实践教学循序渐进;实践教学管理科学到位,注意针对性、实用性;实践教学方法灵活多样,实践教学考核严而有格;强化实践基地建设,培育优质基地。打造品牌实践教学活动必须针对实践教学品牌的市场占有能力、超值创利能力与发展潜力进行规划。     

Preparing Instructional Designers for Game-Based Learning: Part III. Game Design as a Collaborative Process

In this three part series, four professors who teach graduate level courses on the design of instructional video games discuss their perspectives on preparing instructional designers to optimize game-based learning. Part I set the context for the series and one of four panelists discussed what he believes instructional designers should know about instructional game design. In Part II, two faculty members who teach courses on instructional game design presented their perspectives on preparing instructional designers for game-based learning. Part III presents a fourth perspective along with conclusion that contrasts the four views posited in Parts I-III.     

Integrating Theory and Practice Through Instructional Assessment

This article describes a conceptual framework to integrate assessment and instruction. Based on constructivist perspectives on teaching and learning and the recent movement away from externally mandated testing as a guide for classroom activity, the framework highlights the importance of the teacher in the development of instructional assessment. Instructional assessment is viewed as part of a larger assessment system, with each component having different audiences and purposes. To be most effective, it is argued that the connections between assessment and instruction be bound more tightly. Teachers and students are asked to have more active roles, from the development of strategies to interpretation of results. Because this represents a very different model for assessment, new criteria for judging the validity of assessment strategies are outlined. Collaboration between the research and practitioner communities are suggested to develop practically grounded but theoretically strong methods of assessment.     

目标设置理论及其教育应用

目标设置理论是一种重要的激励理论.本文深入分析了目标的涵义、目标对学业绩效作用的机制,包括目标的明确度与难度等特性对学业绩效的影响,目标与成绩之间关系的调节因素,如国标承诺、目标重要性、目标定向、反馈、任务复杂性,以及努力、坚持性、策略,以及对结果和奖励的满意度等;探讨了目标设置理论在教育情境的应用,提出了目标设置的原则与方式,以期为教师和思想政治工作者指导学生科学设置目标提供帮助.     

Questioning Techniques: A Study of Instructional Practice

To what extent do teachers use questions to encourage deeper thinking and elicit fuller responses? How do teachers use the levels of questions and wait time as a teaching technique? How do teachers make space for students to talk together so that their thoughts are visible to other students? This article seeks to provide answers to these important questions through a review of the literature that begins with a study of the history of questioning, and then turns to the following topics: developing higher level thinking through questioning strategies; the role of wait time within the context of classroom climate and peer interactions; and higher order questioning strategies aligned with student achievement in reading and language arts. Although the author's frame of reference for how these issues play out is within the context of a school where students’ ability to articulate understanding and their own point of view is purposefully promoted and highly valued, the insights will have broad applicability across a full spectrum of schools.