Gender and Social Inequality at Oxford and Cambridge Universities

Abstract

The academic efficiency and social justice of entry procedures at Oxford and Cambridge Universities are examined over the past quarter of a century. For each major subject the mean A‐level scores of males and females entering from state and independent schools are compared with mean final examination scores in the major subjects. In any comparison of state and independent cohorts of the same gender, within the bounds of normal statistical fluctuation, the difference in A‐level score is a good predictor of the difference in finals score. For example, when between state men and independent men the difference in A‐level score is zero, the difference between mean finals score is zero also. The origin of female under‐achievement is examined. In most subjects there is pronounced gender inequality due to the following chain of circumstances: (1) to break‐even in finals women require at entry better grades at Advanced Level than men; (2) women used to have much the better A‐levels and so, in finals a quarter of a century ago, they matched and even — in some subjects — surpassed the men; (3) the A‐levels of women entering Oxford and Cambridge Universities fell off during the 1970s; (4) today female A‐level scores are slightly worse than male A‐level scores, and so female finals scores are much worse, in most subjects, than male finals scores. The concept of an ideal subject is defined; this is a subject in which zero difference in A‐level score between male and female yields zero difference in finals score. Law at Cambridge and chemistry at Oxford are ideal subjects. Ideal subjects are rare at Oxbridge: most subjects exhibit a significant male lead in finals when male and female have equal A‐level scores. The most non‐ideal subject at Oxford is mathematics, in which zero difference in A‐level score between males and females yields a male lead in finals score of 13%: at Oxford the other non‐ideal subjects are physics (male lead at equal A‐levels 11%), philosophy, politics and economics (9%), history (8%), modem languages (8%) and English (5%). An ideal subject is a paradigm which requires even‐handedness between male and female cohorts in the following parameters: (1) efficiency of course selection from school; (2) efficiency of teaching; (3) efficiency of finals assessment; (4) latent ability. A pronounced relative decline in the A‐level scores of girls educated in state maintained schools entering English and Welsh universities occurred in the 1970s; it is attributed to the reform of the state school system, particularly the growth in mixed‐sex comprehensive schools and the decline in the number of female single‐sex grammar schools. A peculiar aspect of the admissions filters at both Oxford and Cambridge ensures that state‐school educated men gaining entry do so with A‐level scores markedly superior to those of the other three cohorts.     

A digital storytelling project in a multicultural education class for pre-service teachers

ABSTRACT

This paper, against the background of trends in the development of initial teacher training in Europe as a whole, identifies and explains some of the recent, radical reforms which were introduced in France by a socialist government. These include the need to raise the status and the competence of the teaching profession; the creation of new teacher‐training institutions of university status (Instituts universitaires de formation des maitres); the introduction of common entry qualifications at degree level for both primary and secondary levels; the harmonisation and the extension to 2 years of the post‐degree teacher‐training course and the increase in emphasis placed on professional training, both theoretical and practical. These reforms provoked a storm of protest and an examination of the reasons for this reveals a multiplicity of crucial questions which have far‐reaching implications.     

New Qualifications in IT: A Pilot Study at Hull College

Abstract

The General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) is enjoying growing popularity in the further education (EFE) sector in England and Wales. GNVQs have been recently introduced in the Information Technology (IT) vocational area, to augment or replace existing qualifications. These new courses have been piloted (academic year 1994‐199S) at several centres, including Hull College. This paper focuses on the Advanced level GNVQ in IT, contrasting it with existing qualifications (A level and National Diploma); reflections on the Hull College experience are also provided

The GNVQ (Advanced) is seen not only as leading directly to employment (like the traditional National Diploma), but also as a route into higher education (HE). Growing numbers of universities now accept the GNVQ as an entry qualification. For the first time, a vocational course is now perceived increasingly as a genuine alternative to the A level. The implications for universities are examined, with predictions as to the likely strengths and weaknesses of different categories of university entrant. The importance of choosing the right HE course, now that university provision has become increasingly diverse in the computing area is also highlighted. This paper extends and provides full discussion of the preliminary findings introduced at the 3rd Annual Conference on the Teaching of Computing held at Dublin City University in August 1995.     

Higher education,Curriculum 2000 and the future reform of 14–19 qualifications in England

This article, which is based on research funded by the Nuffield Foundation, examines the responses of higher education institutions (HEIs) to the recent reform of advanced level qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, known as Curriculum 2000. The research, undertaken in late 2002 and early 2003 following the ‘graduation’ of the first cohort of Curriculum 2000 learners, combined documentary analysis, use of national survey findings and interviews with a sample of university admissions tutors from new (post‐1992) and old (pre‐1992) universities in England. The research shows that HEIs were generally well‐informed about most aspects of the advanced level reforms and, at the level of public statements, welcomed the possibility of a broader advanced level curriculum. However, this relatively positive approach was not reproduced in terms of offer‐making to candidates: admissions tutors, particularly in the pre‐1992 universities, continued to make offers largely on the basis of predicted grades in three main A Levels. We argue that the reason for this cautious approach by the HEIs was not simply a result of their traditional support for subject specialisation, but also stemmed from systemic problems related to the Curriculum 2000 qualifications, their voluntarism and their less than universal up‐take by schools, colleges and learners. We conclude by looking briefly at the implications of these research findings for the future reform of 14–19 curriculum and qualifications in England.     

Teachers' estimates of candidates' grades: Curriculum 2000 Advanced Level Qualifications

In the UK, estimated grades have long been provided to higher education establishments as part of their entry procedures. Since 1994 they have also been routinely collected by awarding bodies to facilitate the grade‐awarding process. Analyses of required estimates to a British awarding body revealed that teachers' estimates of candidates' Curriculum 2000 A level grades in the first year of awarding demonstrated an unprecedented degree of accuracy. Estimates of AS level grades conversely showed relative imprecision. Accuracy of the A‐level estimates was most likely bolstered by feedback inherent to the modularisation of the examination while the weakness of AS level estimates may have been a consequence of the comparatively unfamiliar standard at which this qualification was set. As in previous research, and for both GCE qualifications, when estimates were inaccurate they were more commonly optimistic than pessimistic.     

Predicting university performance in Psychology: the role of previous performance and discipline‐specific knowledge

Recent initiatives to enhance retention and widen participation ensure it is crucial to understand the factors that predict students' performance during their undergraduate degree. The present research used Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test three separate models that examined the extent to which British Psychology students' A‐level entry qualifications predicted: (1) their performance in years 1–3 of their Psychology degree, and (2) their overall degree performance. Students' overall A‐level entry qualifications positively predicted performance during their first year and overall degree performance, but negatively predicted their performance during their third year. Additionally, and more specifically, students' A‐level entry qualifications in Psychology positively predicted performance in the first year only. Such findings have implications for admissions tutors, as well as for students who have not studied Psychology before but who are considering applying to do so at university.     

After Care: the education and occupation of adults who have been in care

abstract

Data from the 1981 and 1991 sweeps of the National Child Development Study are used to explore the educational qualifications and the subsequent occupations of people who had experienced care as children. The results confirm previous investigations which show that people who have been in care have much lower educational qualifications than their peers who have never been in care; they also show that they have higher risks of unemployment and, if they obtain jobs, are more likely to be in lower‐level jobs. These results do not, however, apply equally to all people who have ever been in care. People who experienced short periods of care before the age of one perform close to the national average, while one of the most disadvantaged groups are people who came into care before eleven years of age and did not leave care until after eleven. This group typically remained in care for around nine years, and they not only had low educational attainments but also had even lower occupational attainments than would have been expected given their lack of qualifications.     

The National Training Reform and the Preparation of Teachers: new approaches

The series of Australian Government policy initiatives somewhat misleadingly known as the national‐training‐reform agenda (FitzGerald, 1994) represent a new reference point for faculties of education engaged in the preparation of teachers. The ideas first floated in Australia Reconstructed (ACTU, 1987)—the creation of a high‐wage, high‐skill economy based on a national system of skills formation and skills enhancement—reflected three underpinning principles on which government, unions and employers were united. These principles—a move away from time served and towards competencies achieved, a system of nationally recognised qualifications and a central role for industry in the specification of standards—continue to enjoy such tripartite support and are central to the implementation of training reform. Lundberg (1994) identified five main themes of the training‐reform agenda, namely, nationally consistent competency‐based training, national recognition of competencies however attained, an open training market, fair participation in vocational education and training, and an integrated entry‐level training system. The effect that the implementation of reforms to the training system is having on the work of those teaching in schools is only now becoming apparent (Schools Council, 1994a). This paper describes the approaches used by the Faculty of Education and Training at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) and considers the impact that the changed training system might also have on the work of teacher educators in higher education in Australia.     

Degrees of difference: variability of degree results in UK universities

Evidence of variability in degree results in UK universities from 1973 to1993 is presented for eight subjects. This variability is not random. Thereis a clear tendency in all subjects for certain universities to awardpercentages of Good degrees (i.e. Firsts and Upper Seconds) consistentlyabove or below the corresponding national average. These differences maypartly reflect entry qualifications with universities acceptingbetter-qualified students awarding more Good degrees. Other plausibleexplanations may, however, be offered including institutional differences inteaching and assessment practices and in the definition of class boundaries.It is important, in the context of the current debate about 'standards', totest these explanations by conducting qualitative research within thedepartments responsible for the delivery of teaching and for the assessmentof students.     

Relationship between sociometric types and academic achievement in a sample of compulsory secondary education students / Relación entre tipos sociométricos y rendimiento académico en una muestra de estudiantes de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria

Abstract

The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between sociometric types, behavioural categories and academic achievement in a sample of 1,349 compulsory secondary education students (51.7% boys), ranging in age from 12 to 16 years. The students’ sociometric identification was performed by using the Programa Socio and academic performance was measured by school marks provided by teachers in the subjects of Spanish language, mathematics and average academic performance. The results show that sociometric types were significant predictors of academic achievement, as students who were rated positively by their peers (popular, leaders, collaborators and good students) were more likely to have high academic achievement (in mathematics, Spanish language and average academic achievement) than students rated negatively by peers (rejected-aggressive, rejected-shy, neglected and bullies).     

The Stratification of Youth Training∗

Abstract

This article is based on surveys in 1988 among representative samples totalling 4,247 16‐19 year olds from four areas (Kirkcaldy, Liverpool, Sheffield and Swindon), of whom 1,562 had some experience of Youth Training (YT). The young people's likelihood of entering YT depended primarily on their educational qualifications and where they lived. Trainees’ chances of being kept on by the firms where they were trained depended mainly on their types of schemes and their performances during training, indicated by whether or not they earned any additional qualifications. The chances of those not retained moving immediately to jobs with other firms were more dependent on their school‐leaving qualifications and where they lived. The authors interpret their evidence to argue that employers’ uses of YT in the late‐1980s were creating increasingly clear divisions between sponsorship, contest and warehousing sectors.

     

Kohlberg's Theory Applied to the Moral and Sexual Development of Adults 1

Abstract

Previous research has shown that children and adolescents can progress in the stages of moral judgment. However, in the case of adults, Kohlberg (1973) suggested there might be crystallization after the age of 25.

The purpose of this study was to establish whether the structure of moral judgment of adults could be systematically encouraged toward change. Thirty‐six adults (three groups) enrolled in an adult sexology course were assessed to determine stage level at the beginning of the course, and post‐tested at the completion of the course. Four dilemmas were used: two for general moral judgment, and two for sexual moral judgment. During the 45‐hour course, subjects were systematically introduced to arguments of a higher stage, and discussions focused on the axiological aspects of the adults’ sexual life.

Results show that there was a significant increase in the scores at the post‐test, both in general and in sexual moral judgments; subjects over 25 also increased their scores, thus indicating that the structure of moral judgment is not crystallized after that age. The existence of a differential between general and sexual moral judgments was also corroborated.

Implications with regard to the use of the ‘+1 stage’ technique for adult education, and more particularly for adult sexual education, are discussed.

     

Women into science and engineering? Gendered participation in higher education STEM subjects

This paper considers gendered patterns of participation in post‐compulsory STEM education. It examines the trajectory of learning that takes students from A‐level qualifications, through undergraduate work and into employment or further study. It also uses a long‐term view to look at the best available evidence to monitor participation and attainment over an extended period of time. The findings suggest that almost three decades of initiatives to increase participation in STEM subjects have had little noticeable impact on the recruitment data and gendered patterns of participation persist in several subject areas. This is despite more women entering HE and little gender difference in the entry qualifications for STEM subjects. While more women are studying science, as broadly conceived, than ever before, recruitment to key areas, namely physics and engineering remains stagnant. However, for those women who do remain in the ‘science stream’ patterns of employment in graduate careers and further study appear relatively equitable.     

Institutional policies for part‐time undergraduate higher education in Scotland

Financial pressures, restrictions on full‐time participation and the public commitment to access and lifelong learning, suggest that part‐time provision may be increasingly important in undergraduate‐level higher education. However the scale and organisation of part‐time provision varies across institutions, and its future development may depend on decisions taken at institutional level. This paper describes Scottish institutions’ policies for part‐time provision of first degrees and Higher National Certificates and Diplomas (HNCs and HNDs). It is based on interviews with senior managers in all 23 Scottish higher education institutions (HEIs), and in 11 further education (FE) colleges. Most institutions planned to expand part‐time provision. New (post‐1992) universities were the most committed to expansion; non‐university HEIs and some old universities were the least committed. Policies for expanding part‐time provision were often part of a broader strategy for flexibility. The research revealed two contrasting models of flexibility: many universities pursued flexible integration, bringing full‐ and part‐time study into a common web of provision, whereas FE colleges typically pursued flexible differentiation, maintaining the distinctions between (and within) the modes. Institutional polices were influenced by four sets of factors: institutional mission, other institution‐specific factors, government policy and funding, and demand; funding arrangements and demand were seen as the main drivers. Finally, we question whether the greater formal autonomy of institutions led in practice to more independent decision‐making, and whether the trends anticipated by our interviewees are in fact well entrenched.     

Purpose,Value and Competence: Contextualising competence based assessment in the civil aviation sector

Abstract

This paper outlines some of the issues emerging from research in to competence based training and assessment, and National Vocational Qualifications. A model for analysing the key purposes of formal assessment systems is suggested and a conceptual framework is presented which uses the notions of use and exchange value for gauging the worth of qualifications. The author presents material collected during a study of the training and assessment of student air traffic controllers to illustrate how contextual features, particularly at the occupational level, can affect the purpose and design of a qualification as well as the value attached to it by recipients and employers. It is suggested that elements such as: ‘purpose’, ‘perceived value’ ‘qualification design’ and ‘context’ provide a conceptual framework within which further understanding of the role of qualifications can be achieved. The longer term aspiration of the analysis begun in this paper is the development of a context‐sensitive theory of occupational qualifications.     

WIDENING AND INCREASING POST-16 MATHEMATICS PARTICIPATION: PATHWAYS, PEDAGOGIES AND POLITICS

This paper explores the potential impact of a national pilot initiative in England aimed at increasing and widening participation in advanced mathematical study through the creation of a new qualification for 16- to 18-year-olds. This proposed qualification pathway—Use of Mathematics—sits in parallel with long-established, traditional advanced level qualifications, what we call ‘traditional Mathematics’ herein. Traditional Mathematics is typically required for entry to mathematically demanding undergraduate programmes. The structure, pedagogy and assessment of Use of Mathematics is designed to better prepare students in the application of mathematics, and its development has surfaced some of the tensions between academic/pure and vocational/applied mathematics. Here, we explore what Use of Mathematics offers, but we also consider some of the objections to its introduction in order to explore aspects of the knowledge politics of mathematics education. Our evaluation of this curriculum innovation raises important issues for the mathematics education community as countries seek to increase the numbers of people that are well prepared to apply mathematics in science and technology-based higher education courses and work places.     

One‐teacher schools in America

Abstract

At the turn of the century some 200,000 one‐teacher schools were in existence in the United States. This number now stands at approximately 380. A study of these schools found them to be staffed with qualified teachers with extensive experience. The teachers are typically female and live near where they teach.

Teachers work an average of nine hours a day teaching all subjects including physical education and music. Other activities include custodial duties, driving the school bus, performing secretarial functions, ordering supplies, and lunch supervision.

Student enrollment has a present average level of 9.4, a level that helps teachers meet the needs of each student. Low enrollment may also create concern about school closures in the future. Teachers indicate that they use individualized instruction, peer tutoring, and cooperative learning. They have few discipline problems and no violence or drug issues.     

Principals’ delegation and posts of responsibility in Dublin national schools

Abstract

Effective school administration is seen as important and is the task not only of the principal but also of promoted senior teachers in national schools today. Information on principals’ involvement in tasks that may be viewed as not exclusively theirs was gathered as part of a project on principals’ work behaviour in national schools. Some principals appeared to perform duties that could be delegated. One‐quarter of the national schools in the survey either had no delegated areas of responsibility or did not delegate duties to all promoted teachers. The emphasis in delegation is strongly towards organisational and support duties (and even chores) and to insignificant degrees in the areas of curricular responsibilities or leadership and co‐ordinating roles and duties. The level of professional development involved for promoted senior teachers is not considered adequate.     

Who Benefits Most From Head Start? Using Latent Class Moderation to Examine Differential Treatment Effects

Head Start (HS) is the largest federally funded preschool program for disadvantaged children. Research has shown relatively small impacts on cognitive and social skills; therefore, some have questioned its effectiveness. Using data from the Head Start Impact Study (3‐year‐old cohort; N = 2,449), latent class analysis was used to (a) identify subgroups of children defined by baseline characteristics of their home environment and caregiver and (b) test whether the effects of HS on cognitive, and behavioral and relationship skills over 2 years differed across subgroups. The results suggest that the effectiveness of HS varies quite substantially. For some children there appears to be a significant, and in some cases, long‐term, positive impact. For others there is little to no effect.     

Moral Development Among Mildly Mentally Handicapped School Children

Abstract

According to the cognitive‐developmental theory, intellectual development is best understood in terms of age‐related changes. This has been found to be a valid theory in the case of mentally subnormal subjects as well, although their development proceeds at a speed and up to a level different from their normal age‐mates. The same theory has been applied to moral development and describes it, likewise, as a stage‐like progress of moral reasoning with age. The present study tries to answer the following question: Does the moral reasoning of the subjects classified as subnormal change with age so that it can be said to develop? According to the results obtained (dealing with subjects nine‐, 11‐, 13‐, 15‐ and 17‐years‐old), the cognitive‐developmental hypothesis of moral development is only partially confirmed. Namely, there is a development from the less to the more mature forms of moral reasoning, but the course of that development is not entirely such as the theory assumes. Moreover, moral reasoning of the subjects in this study is more advanced than their intelligence level as expressed by the IQ score.