Age at menarche in competitive figure skaters: variation by competency and discipline.

We estimated age at menarche in a cross-sectional sample of 159 competitive figure skaters aged 11-22 years. The sample represented three standards (test stream, pre-elite, elite) and three disciplines (free skaters, pair skaters, dancers). The status quo (yes/no) and retrospective methods were used. Estimated age at menarche based on probit analysis of the status quo data was 14.2 +/- 0.5 years, with 95% confidence intervals of 13.2 to 15.2 years. Mean recalled age at menarche for 67 skaters aged 16 years or over was 13.6 +/- 1.2 years. Comparisons of skaters by standard and discipline were limited to skaters > or = 16 years. Menarche was, on average, significantly later (P < 0.01) in elite (n = 36; 14.0 +/- 1.4 years) than in test stream (n = 15; 12.9 +/- 0.8 years) skaters. Age at menarche in pre-elite skaters (n = 16; 13.5 +/- 0.9 years) did not differ significantly from the other two groups. By discipline, menarche was, on average, significantly later (P < 0.01) in pair skaters (n = 12; 14.5 +/- 1.3 years) than in both free skaters (n = 38; 13.4 +/- 1.0 years) and dancers (n = 17; 13.4 +/- 1.4 years). Early maturing girls (menarche < 12.0 years; n = 2) were not represented in this sample of competitive figure skaters. Mean recalled age at menarche of mothers of skaters (n = 84) was 13.7 +/- 1.3 years and the mother-daughter correlation (n = 56 pairs) was 0.45 (P < 0.01). Later maturation was thus characteristic of competitive figure skaters, particularly in elite and more specialized pair skaters, and there was a significant familial resemblance.     

Postpartum Mothers’ Leisure-Time Exercise Behavior is Linked to Positive Emotion During Partner Discussions

Purpose: Marital dissatisfaction and conflict often increase for couples after the birth of a child and are evident in fewer positive family interactions and more negative family interactions. Because exercise is known to increase positive emotions and decrease negative emotions, the current study examined the extent to which higher levels of mothers’ exercise during the postpartum period were related to more positive and fewer negative emotion-expressive behaviors with their infants’ fathers. Method: Mothers’ (N = 46; M = 8 months postpartum) positive and negative expressive behaviors were coded during couples’ discussions of current conflict and positive family experiences. Mothers self-reported their leisure-time exercise behavior. Results: First-time mothers and mothers with higher levels of leisure-time exercise behavior displayed higher levels of positive expressive behaviors during couples’ discussions. Conclusions: Exercise may be associated with increased positive emotion and, in turn, can have great potential to improve family relationships during the postpartum period when marital stress normatively increases, particularly for mothers with more than 1 child. Future longitudinal studies are needed to understand exercise patterns across the postpartum period to identify the most effective timing and optimal level of exercise that lead to more positive expressive behaviors.     

Physical Education Students’ Ownership,Empowerment, and Satisfaction With PE and Physical Activity

Individuals experiencing a highly caring, task-involving, and low ego-involving exercise climate have reported greater ownership in exercise class and empowerment to exercise in general. Purpose: This study examined the relationship between ownership and empowerment in exercise, with 2 context-specific outcomes, satisfaction with physical education (PE) and physical activity, respectively. Given the mission of PE to foster individuals’ lifelong physical activity habit, the perceptions of high school students were collected for this study. Ownership in exercise was hypothesized to be significantly, positively correlated with students reporting satisfaction in PE more than their satisfaction in physical activity, whereas empowerment in exercise was hypothesized to be more strongly, positively correlated with students’ physical activity satisfaction. A second purpose of this study was to test the measurement quality of the updated Empowerment in Exercise Scale (EES; now 13 items). Method: High school students (N = 502, 43% female) in a Midwestern U.S. school district completed a survey. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis supported the internal measurement structure of the EES (λ = .62–.91; McDonald’s omega = .89) across student gender (strong invariance). Additionally, the structural equation modeling analysis revealed only 1 parameter moderated by the students’ gender (latent mean of ownership). The hypotheses were supported, such that ownership in exercise was more strongly correlated with PE satisfaction (r = .87) and empowerment in exercise had a stronger correlation with physical activity satisfaction (r = .92). Conclusion: These results support the beneficial effect a satisfying experience in PE can have on students’ satisfaction with physical activity outside of school.     

Parental Support and Objectively Measured Physical Activity in Children: A Yearlong Cluster-Randomized Controlled Efficacy Trial

Purpose: We studied whether physical activity (PA) counseling for parents influenced the level of parental support of children’s PA and leisure-time PA in children of different levels of initial parental support. We hypothesized that the initial level of parental support would moderate the intervention efficacy. Method: Children (n = 44, M_age = 6.09 ± 1.17 years) and their parents (n = 61) randomly assigned to an intervention group received counseling for 6 months. Children in the control group (n = 47, M_age = 6.12 ± 1.11 years) and their parents (n = 63) did not receive any counseling. Parental support was assessed using the Family Physical Activity Environment Questionnaire, and children’s leisure-time PA was recorded using triaxial accelerometers at baseline, at 6 months, and at 12 months. The efficacy of the intervention was tested by linear mixed-effects modeling adjusted for confounding variables (Model 1) and additionally for children’s participation in organized PA or sports (Model 2). Results: Parents within the lowest initial parental support intervention tertile significantly increased their support, and their children’s mean level of leisure-time PA significantly improved compared with the corresponding controls during the counseling period. On the other hand, intervention was found to have an unfavorable influence especially in the PA of children of initially highly supportive parents. Conclusion: Targeting PA counseling for parents with low support of their children’s PA could contribute to better family-based PA counseling efficacy.     

Relative Age Effect,Biological Maturation,and Coaches’ Efficacy Expectations in Young Male Soccer Players

Purpose: The talent identification and selection process in young male soccer players is mainly focused on anthropometrics and physical performance, but social factors are also considered in this process. The purpose of this study was to test the existence of the relative age effect and its possible influence on anthropometrics and physical performance and to analyze coaches’ efficacy expectations. Method: Data for 564 young male soccer players (M_age = 13.7 ± 1.5 years; M_weight = 53.7 ± 11.6 kg; M_height = 160.2 ± 11.6 cm) included their birth quartile, maturity status, anthropometrics, a physical test battery, and coaches’ efficacy expectations. Results: Early-born players were overrepresented (p < .05). Early-born players were not statistically taller, heavier, or better at physical performance (p > .05) when maturation and chronological age were controlled as confounding factors. However, coaches expected more from early-born players (p < .05), and the inferential analysis showed likely to very likely worthwhile differences between the coaches’ expectations for players born in the first quartile of the year and those born in the fourth quartile of the year. Conclusions: Anthropometrical and physical performance variables were not affected by birth quartile, and coaches’ efficacy expectations were related to the relative age effect.     

Role of maturity timing in selection procedures and in the specialisation of playing positions in youth basketball

This study investigated the role of maturity timing in selection procedures and in the specialisation of playing positions in youth male basketball. Forty-three talented Dutch players (14.66 ± 1.09 years) participated in this study. Maturity timing (age at peak height velocity), anthropometric, physiological, and technical characteristics were measured. Maturity timing and height of the basketball players were compared with a matched Dutch population. One-sample t-tests showed that basketball players were taller and experienced their peak height velocity at an earlier age compared to their peers, which indicates the relation between maturity timing and selection procedures. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that guards experienced their peak height velocity at a later age compared to forwards and centres (P < .01). In addition, positional differences were found for height, sitting height, leg length, body mass, lean body mass, sprint, lower body explosive strength, and dribble (P < .05). Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) (age and age at peak height velocity as covariate) showed only a significant difference regarding the technical characteristic dribbling (P < .05). Coaches and trainers should be aware of the inter-individual differences between boys related to their maturity timing. Since technical characteristics appeared to be least influenced by maturity timing, it is recommended to focus more on technical characteristics rather than anthropometric and physiological characteristics.     

Factors affecting sports involvement in a school-based youth cohort: Implications for long-term athletic development

ABSTRACT

The aim of the present study was to determine the factors affecting sports involvement in a school-based adolescent population. The cross-sectional cohort study assessed anthropometry, physical capacities and motor competence in 501 boys (aged 10–16 y), from junior (10–12 y) and senior (13–16 y) cohorts. Sports participation data was collected from junior participants. Multivariate analysis of covariance revealed moderate maturity, anthropometry, physical capacity and motor competence differences between sports in the senior cohort (F = 2.616, p < 0.001, η² = .08), but not in the junior cohort. Furthermore, differences in physical fitness were revealed between playing levels (F = 2.616, p < 0.001, η² = .08), with a discriminant analysis correctly classifying 73% of participants using aerobic fitness and vertical jump measures. Representative level participants engaged in more structured training and commenced organised competition at a later age (F = 4.332, p < 0.001, η² = .21). This study’s findings are twofold: 1) physical and motor competence profiles differ more between sports with increasing age, and 2) participants at a higher level of competition report delayed engagement in their main sport. As a result, schools may be the ideal environment in which to provide children and adolescents with the opportunity to sample different sports.     

Changes in the stature,body mass and age of English professional rugby players: A 10-year review

Abstract

The aim of the study was to evaluate changes in the stature, body mass, age and number of players by playing position in the first team squads of English Premiership rugby union teams from 2002 to 2011. Medical personnel at each club reported the individual data for every first team squad player. The average annual number of players included in the study was 485.2 players per season (standard deviation: 58.0). The mean stature of players in all positions increased in the period 2002 to 2011 but statistically significant trends (P < 0.01) were only observed at fly half and prop. While the mean body mass of players increased in most positions only fly half and back row players showed statistically significant (P < 0.01) upward trends. Apart from second row forwards, the average age of players in all positions decreased but this trend was only significant (P < 0.01) at prop. The numbers of registered players in every position increased but these trends were only significant (P < 0.01) at prop. English Premiership professional rugby players are generally getting taller, heavier and younger but statistically significant changes were limited to fly halves (taller and heavier), props (taller and younger) and back row forwards (heavier).     

Fundamental Movement Skill Proficiency and Health Among a Cohort of Irish Primary School Children

Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between fundamental movement skills (FMS) and markers of health among a cohort of Irish primary school children. Methods: Participants (N = 296, mean age: 7.99 ± 2.02 years) were senior infant (n = 149, mean age: 6.02 ± 0.39 years) and 4th class (n = 147, mean age: 9.97 ± 0.40 years) students from three primary schools in Cork, Ireland. FMS proficiency (TGMD-2) and markers of health (BMI percentile, waist circumference percentile, blood pressure percentiles, resting heart rate, cardiorespiratory fitness, objectively measured physical activity; PA) measurements were recorded. Correlation and hierarchical stepwise multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship between FMS and markers of health. Results: A small, positive relationship was found between FMS (Gross Motor Quotient; GMQ) and cardiorespiratory fitness with small negative correlations between GMQ and 550 m time SDS among 6-year-olds (r(129) = ?.286, p < .05) and 10-year-olds (r(132) = ?.340, p < .05). A moderate, positive correlation was found between GMQ and light PA (r(71) = .400, p < .05). Small positive correlations were revealed between GMQ and moderate PA (r(71) = .259, p < .05) and between GMQ and total PA (r(71) = .355, p < .05). After adjusting for age, sex, the interaction effect of age and sex, and school attended, FMS explained 15.9% and 24.8% of the variance in 550 m time SDS among 6- and 10-year-olds, respectively, and 6% and 6.5% of the variance in light PA and moderate PA, respectively. After adjusting for age and sex, FMS explained 11.6% of the variance in total PA. Conclusion: A wide range of FMS is important for children’s cardiorespiratory fitness and PA.     

Effects of age,maturity and body dimensions on match running performance in highly trained under-15 soccer players

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to compare, in 36 highly trained under-15 soccer players, the respective effects of age, maturity and body dimensions on match running performance. Maximal sprinting (MSS) and aerobic speeds were estimated. Match running performance was analysed with GPS (GPSport, 1 Hz) during 19 international friendly games (n = 115 player-files). Total distance and distance covered >16 km h^–1 (D > 16 km h^?1) were collected. Players advanced in age and/or maturation, or having larger body dimensions presented greater locomotor (Cohen’s d for MSS: 0.5–1.0, likely to almost certain) and match running performances (D > 16 km h^?1: 0.2–0.5, possibly to likely) than their younger, less mature and/or smaller teammates. These age-, maturation- and body size-related differences were of larger magnitude for field test measures versus match running performance. Compared with age and body size (unclear to likely), maturation (likely to almost certainly for all match variables) had the greatest impact on match running performance. The magnitude of the relationships between age, maturation and body dimensions and match running performance were position-dependent. Within a single age-group in the present player sample, maturation had a substantial impact on match running performance, especially in attacking players. Coaches may need to consider players’ maturity status when assessing their on-field playing performance.     

Dual-task effect on postural control in high-level competitive dancers

Abstract

We investigated balance in 33 competitive dancers (17 females, 16 males) and 22 controls (17 females, 5 males) (age 16–27 years) on a force plate in two conditions: single task (quiet stance) and dual task (with a concurrent mental task). Balance was evaluated using centre-of-pressure shift (sway) variability, mean speed, frequency, and sample entropy. The effect of the dual task in the medio-lateral plane was comparable in both groups, decreasing sway variability (P < 0.05) and increasing mean speed (P < 0.001), frequency, and sample entropy (P < 0.001), showing that the participants effectively increased the level of automaticity. In the antero-posterior plane, the dual task also increased sway frequency and sample entropy (P < 0.01) in dancers without affecting their standing performance. In contrast, postural control in non-dancers was vulnerable to reduced cognitive investment, which adversely interfered with baseline performance. There were very high correlations between sway sample entropy and frequency in each group, plane, and task (r = 0.92–0.98, P < 0.001), indicating that both parameters may measure the same characteristic of postural control and that higher sway frequency may play an important role in protecting stability in dual tasking. The postural control of dancers and non-dancers appears to be similar, although dancing seems to facilitate the increased level of automatic control in the antero-posterior plane.     

Active relatives and health-related physical fitness in European adolescents: The HELENA Study

Abstract

High physical fitness in childhood and adolescence is positively associated with favourable health-related outcomes. Our aim was to examine the relationship between relatives’ (father, mother, brother, sister, and best friend) physical activity engagement and encouragement on adolescents’ physical fitness. Adolescents were part of the HELENA study, a multi-centre study conducted in 10 cities from nine European countries in 2006–2008. Participants were 3288 adolescents (48% boys, 52% girls) aged 12.5–17.5 years with valid data on at least one of the three fitness variables studied: muscular strength (standing long jump), speed/agility (4×10 m shuttle run), and cardiorespiratory fitness (20 m shuttle run). The adolescents reported their relatives’ physical activity engagement and encouragement. Analysis of covariance showed that relatives’ physical activity engagement (father, mother, brother, and best friend) was positively related to cardiorespiratory fitness (P < 0.05); and mother's and sisters’ physical activity engagement were positively associated with higher muscular strength in adolescents (P < 0.05). Furthermore, father's physical activity encouragement was positively linked to physical fitness (all fitness components) in adolescents (P < 0.05). Interventions aimed at improving physical fitness in young people might be more successful when family members, particularly mothers and fathers, are encouraged to engage in physical activity and support adolescents’ physical activity.     

The prognostic relevance of psychological factors with regard to participation and success in table-tennis

ABSTRACT

This study examined the prognostic relevance of self-determined motivation, coping, burnout, perceived stress and recovery experienced by 159 youth table-tennis players involved in intensive training centers with regard to their participation and success six years later. Results of ANCOVAs showed that players who still practiced at time 2 (T2; six years later; n = 130) reported lower time 1 (T1; while they were involved in intensive training centers) amotivation (large effect), disengagement-oriented coping, sport devaluation and reduced accomplishment (moderate effects) than their counterparts who dropped out at T2 (n = 29). Results of ANCOVAs also showed that international (n = 18) and/or national players (n = 86) at T2 reported significantly lower T1 amotivation (large effect), disengagement-oriented coping and sport devaluation (moderate effects) in comparison to regional (n = 26) players at T2. Finally results of correlational analyses showed that T2 performance and/or six-year performance progress were significantly and weakly correlated with introjected and external regulations, perceived stress and perceived recovery, and significantly and moderately correlated with amotivation, disengagement-oriented coping, sport devaluation, and reduced accomplishment. Overall, this study provided insights into the role played by self-determined motivation, coping, burnout, perceived stress and recovery in the table-tennis players’ dropout and performance level six years later.     

Kicking Performance in Young U9 to U20 Soccer Players: Assessment of Velocity and Accuracy Simultaneously

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare the kicking performance of young soccer players in the U9 to U20 age groups. Method: Three hundred and sixty-six Brazilian players were evaluated on an official pitch using three-dimensional kinematics to measure (300 Hz) ball velocity (V_ball), foot velocity (V_foot), V_ball/V_foot ratio, last stride length, and distance between the support foot and the ball. Simultaneously, a two-dimensional procedure was also conducted to compute (60 Hz) the mean radial error, bivariate variable error, and accuracy. Possible age-related differences were assessed through one-way analysis of variance and magnitude-based inferences. Results: Ball velocity increased by 103% (p < .001, η² = .39) from the U11 age group (48.54 ± 8.31 km/hr) to the U20 age group (98.74 ± 16.35 km/hr). Foot velocity presented a 59% increase (p < .001, η² = .32) from the U11 age group (49.08 ± 5.16 km/hr) to U20 (78.24 ± 9.49 km/hr). This finding was due to improvement in the quality of foot–ball impact (V_ball/V_foot ratio) from U11 (0.99 ± 0.13 a.u.) to U20 (1.26 ± 0.11 a.u.; p < .001, η² = .25). Parameters such as mean radial error and accuracy appeared to be impaired during the growth spurt (U13–U15). Last stride length was correlated, low to moderately high, with V_ball in all age groups (r = .36–.79). Conclusions: In summary, we concluded that simple biomechanical parameters of kicking performance presented distinct development. These results suggest that different training strategies specific for each age group could be applied. We provide predictive equations to aid coaches in the long-term monitoring process to develop the kick in soccer or search for talented young players.     

Development of the children’s active play imagery questionnaire

Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to develop an instrument, the Children’s Active Play Imagery Questionnaire (CAPIQ), to assess imagery use during children’s (7–14 years) active play. Phase 1 involved an assessment of content validity using experts (N = 7), while Phase 2 assessed the factorial validity of the CAPIQ using a sample of children (N = 302). Phase 3 contributed to the factorial validity of the CAPIQ by utilising confirmatory factor analysis among an independent sample of children (N = 252). The final version of the CAPIQ consists of 11 items across three factors: fun, social and capability. Further use of the CAPIQ will aid in identifying types of imagery used among children (7–14 years) in their active play, which may contribute to physical activity interventions.     

Misremembering Past Affect Predicts Adolescents’ Future Affective Experience During Exercise

Purpose: Increasing physical activity among adolescents is a public health priority. Because people are motivated to engage in activities that make them feel good, this study examined predictors of adolescents’ feelings during exercise. Method: During the 1st semester of the school year, we assessed 6th-grade students’ (N = 136) cognitive appraisals of the importance of exercise. Participants also reported their affect during a cardiovascular fitness test and recalled their affect during the fitness test later that semester. During the 2nd semester, the same participants rated their affect during a moderate-intensity exercise task. Results: Affect reported during the moderate-intensity exercise task was predicted by cognitive appraisals of the importance of exercise and by misremembering affect during the fitness test as more positive than it actually was. This memory bias mediated the association between appraising exercise as important and experiencing a positive change in affect during the moderate-intensity exercise task. Conclusion: These findings highlight the roles of both cognitive appraisals and memory as factors that may influence affect during exercise. Future work should explore whether affect during exercise can be modified by targeting appraisals and memories related to exercise experiences.     

Worldwide variation in the performance of children and adolescents: An analysis of 109 studies of the 20-m shuttle run test in 37 countries

Abstract

This study is a meta-analysis of 109 reports of the performance of children and adolescents on the 20-m shuttle run test (20-mSRT). The studies were performed in 37 countries and included data on 418,026 children, tested between 1981 and 2003. Results were expressed as running speed (km · h^?1) at the final completed stage of the 20-mSRT. Raw data were combined with pseudodata using Monte Carlo simulation. The 20-mSRT performances were expressed as z-scores relative to all children of the same age and sex from all countries. An overall “performance index” was derived for each country as the average of the age- and sex-specific z-scores for all children from that country. Factorial analysis of variance was used to compare scores among countries and regions, and between boys and girls of the same age. There was wide and significant (P < 0.0001) global variability in the performance of children. The best performing children were from the Northern European countries Estonia, Iceland, Lithuania, and Finland (0.6 – 0.9 standard deviations above the global average). The worst performing children were from Singapore, Brazil, USA, Italy, Portugal, and Greece (0.4 – 0.9 standard deviations below the global average). There is evidence that performance was negatively related to being overweight, as well as to a country's average temperature.     

The Importance of Adolescents’ Participation in Organized Sport According to VO2peak: A Longitudinal Study

Research from several countries has documented a decline in physical activity (PA) levels and in participation in organized sport with increasing age, indicating that organized sport may be of importance to adolescents’ cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine how regular participation in organized and unorganized PA affected the development of adolescents’ CRF (peak oxygen consumption [VO₂peak]), when controlled for sex interaction. Method: Data on direct measures of VO₂peak and participation in organized PA among adolescents organized into 3 groups (participation in organized sport, participation in unorganized PA, and no weekly PA) were collected from 76 students (39 boys and 37 girls), when they were aged 14 and 19 years old. Results: Statistically significant differences were found between VO₂peak values in the 3 groups at both 14 years of age, F(2, 73) = 7.16, p < .05, ?² = .170, and 19 years of age, F(2, 73) = 14.00, p < .05, ?² = .300, independent of sex at both 14 and 19 years of age, F(2, 73) = 0.05, p > .05, ?² = .02, and F(2, 73) = 0.05, p > .05, ?² = .00. Adolescents participating in organized sport also had statistically significantly higher VO₂peak values than adolescents participating in unorganized PA and those with no weekly PA, at both 14 and 19 years of age. Conclusion: From a health perspective, in terms of CRF, the findings highlight the importance of encouraging adolescents to participate in organized sport and to refrain from dropping out of organized sport programs.     

The Reliability of Aerobic Capacity (VO2max ) Testing in Adolescent Girls

Purpose: This study compared the relative peak torque and normalized electromyographic (EMG) mean frequency (MNF) responses during fatiguing isokinetic muscle actions for men versus women. Method: Twenty men (M _age ± SD = 22 ± 2 years) and 20 women (M _age ± SD = 22 ± 1 years) performed 50 maximal concentric isokinetic muscle actions of the leg extensors at a velocity of 180°/s while surface EMG signals were detected from the vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and vastus medialis. The dependent variables were initial, final, and average peak torque; percent decline; the estimated percentage of fast-twitch fibers for the vastus lateralis; and the linear slope coefficients and y-intercepts for normalized EMG MNF versus repetition number. The data were analyzed with independent-samples t tests and 2-way mixed-factorial analyses of variance. Results: The mean initial, final, and average peak torque values for men were greater than those for women. There were no mean differences for percent decline and the estimated percentage of fast-twitch fibers for the vastus lateralis. There were also no sex differences for the linear slope coefficients, but there were differences among the muscles (vastus medialis>vastus lateralis>rectus femoris). The mean y-intercept for the vastus lateralis for men was greater than that for women. Conclusions: Men demonstrated greater peak torque values than those for women, but the declines in peak torque and normalized EMG MNF were similar between the sexes. The vastus medialis was more fatigue-resistant than both the vastus lateralis and rectus femoris.     

Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Cognitive Performance Among Young Adults in a Higher Education Setting

Purpose: Acute benefits of aerobic exercise on executive functioning have been reported frequently under laboratory conditions. However, to date, a beneficial effect on long-term memory has been less well supported and no data are available regarding nonlaboratory conditions in young adults. The aim of the current study was to investigate acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive functioning in a university classroom setting. Method: Using a cross-over design, 51 participants performed a bout of moderately intense running (RUN) and read an article while seated (CON). Afterwards, they completed free-recall tests, followed by a Flanker task and an n-back task. Results: Participants in the RUN condition compared with those in the CON condition showed shorter reaction time on the inhibition task, F(1, 50) = 5.59, p = .022, η² = .101, and recalled more words in the immediate- and delayed-recall tests, F(1, 50) = 8.40, p = .006, η² = .144. Conclusion: The present findings suggest that a moderately intense bout of aerobic exercise benefits verbal short-term and long-term memory as well as inhibitory control among students in a classroom setting.