Primary assessment activity and learner perceptions of attitude change in four MOOCs

This study seeks to examine perceptions of attitudinal change in relation to the primary assessment activity within four Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) that were designed for attitudinal learning. The purpose of this study was twofold. First, we sought to understand if by focusing on assessing cognitive learning (quizzes) as opposed to behavioral learning (personal projects), the courses would result in greater reported attitude change in the respective areas. The second component of the study examined whether learners who identified cognitive learning (quizzes) as opposed to behavioral learning (personal projects) as the most impactful learning activity (or vice versa) reported stronger learning in the respective attitudinal component. Using an author-created survey that included learner reported attitudinal learning, perceptions of attitude change were collected. Results revealed that learners who utilized assessment activities focusing on behavioral learning did not report higher perceptions of behavioral learning. In contrast, learners utilizing assessment activities that focused on cognitive learning did report higher perceptions of cognitive learning. We conclude with a discussion of instructional design and facilitation of learning in MOOCs, as well as instruction for attitudinal learning within open-learning environments.     

Learners’ perceptions and illusions of adaptivity in computer-based learning environments

Research on computer-based adaptive learning environments has shown exemplary growth. Although the mechanisms of effective adaptive instruction are unraveled systematically, little is known about the relative effect of learners’ perceptions of adaptivity in adaptive learning environments. As previous research has demonstrated that the learners’ view towards a learning environment strongly influences their learning outcomes and learning process, it can be discussed whether program-defined adaptivity is not only effective because of the underlying learner models, but also because the adaptivity is perceived and experienced as such by the learners. In this study, we apply the cognitive mediational paradigm and hypothesize that perceptions of adaptivity mediate the relation between adaptive instruction and learners’ motivations and learning outcomes. The results do not fully support the claim of the cognitive mediational paradigm. Both adaptivity and perceptions were related to motivation, but learners’ perceptions did not act as a mediating variable.     

A motivational perspective on the relation between mental effort and performance: Optimizing learner involvement in instruction

Motivation can be identified as a dimension that determines learning success and causes the high dropout rate among online learners, especially in complex e-learning environments. It is argued that these learning environments represensent a new challenge to cognitive load researchers to investigate the motivational effects of instructional conditions and help instructional designers to predict which instructional configurations will maximize learning and transfer. Consistent with the efficiency perspective introduced by Paas and Van Merriënboer (1993), an alternative motivational perspective of the relation between mental effort and performance is presented. We propose a procedure to compute and visualize the differential effects of instructional conditions on learner motivation, and illustrate this procedure on the basis of an existing data set. Theoretical and practical implications of the motivational perspective are discussed.     

Detrimental effects of immediate explanation feedback

Adjunct questions are a common means to foster learning from instructional explanations. As the benefit of adjunct questions is mitigated if learner performance on them is low, it is also common to provide feedback as an add-on if learners fail to correctly respond to them. However, if adjunct questions are highly demanding, feedback might not only beneficially affect learning because it helps learners revise their comprehension difficulties; at the same time, it could also detrimentally affect learning by causing learners to invest less time in responding to subsequent adjunct questions, which lowers learner performance on these questions. This, in turn, could reduce learning outcomes. To address these potential detrimental effects of feedback, we experimentally varied whether N?=?59 students received immediate feedback after they responded to highly demanding adjunct questions. We found that the feedback did indeed have detrimental effects: At least for the learners who perceived the task of responding to the adjunct questions as highly demanding, the feedback decreased both the time the learners invested in responding to the adjunct questions and their performance on them. This detrimental effect on the performance on the adjunct questions, in turn, entailed a detrimental effect on learning outcomes. We conclude that immediate feedback is not necessarily a beneficial add-on to adjunct questions in all situations.     

Chemistry problem solving instruction: a comparison of three computer-based formats for learning from hierarchical network problem representations

Within the cognitive load theory framework, we designed and compared three alternative instructional solution formats that can be derived from a common static hierarchical network representation depicting problem structure. The interactive-solution format permitted students to search in self-controlled manner for solution steps, static-solution format displayed all solutions steps, and no-solution format did not have solution steps. When we matched instructional time across the formats, in relation to the complex molarity problems rather than the dilution problems, differential transfer performance existed between the static-solution or no-solution formats and the interactive-solution format, but not between the static-solution format and no-solution format. The manner in which learners interact with the static-solution and no-solution formats depends on their level of expertise in the chemistry domain. With considerable learner expertise, provision of solution steps may be redundant incurring extraneous cognitive load. Absence of the solution steps may not have left sufficient cognitive capacity for germane cognitive load as some beginning learners lacked the prior knowledge to deduce the solution steps. Searching for solution steps presumably incurred extraneous cognitive load which interfered with learning and hence, in the interactive-solution format, it outweighed the benefit of engaging in self-regulated interaction with the content. Hence, cognitive load theory is a promising tool to predict the mental load associated with learning from the three alternative computer-based instructional formats.     

Ontology-based concept map for planning a personalised learning path

Developing personalised web-based learning systems has been an important research issue in e-learning because no fixed learning pathway will be appropriate for all learners. However, most current web-based learning platforms with personalised curriculum sequencing tend to emphasise the learner preferences and interests in relation to personalised learning services but fail to consider the difficulty level of course materials, learning order of prior and posterior knowledge and learner abilities while constructing a personalised learning path. As a result, these ignored factors thus easily lead to the generation of poor quality learning paths. Generally, learners could generate cognitive overload or fall into cognitive disorientation owing to inappropriate curriculum sequencing during learning processes, thus, reducing the learning effect. With the advancement of artificial intelligence technologies, ontology technologies enable a linguistic infrastructure to represent conceptual relationships between course materials. Ontology can be served as a structured knowledge representation scheme, capable of assisting the construction of a personalised learning path. This study thus proposes a novel genetic-based curriculum sequencing scheme based on a generated ontology-based concept map, which can be automatically constructed by the pretest results of numerous learners, to plan appropriate learning paths for individual learners. The experimental results indicated that the proposed approach could create high-quality learning paths for individual learners. The proposed approach thus can help learners to learn more effectively and to likely reduce learners' cognitive overloads during learning processes.     

Effects of fading support on hypertext navigation and performance in student-centered e-learning environments

Whether fading support for problems affects accuracy of hypertext navigation and problem performance is investigated in this study. In a student-centered e-learning environment conceptual support is added to help domain novices get an overview of the problem domain, while strategic support is provided to help domain novices get insight into the problem demands. It is assumed that such support helps learners because it lowers the cognitive load of navigation. This frees up cognitive capacity for learning provided that the support fades and becomes less intrusive as a function of learner expertise. It is hypothesized that fading support during practice helps learners navigate more accurately during practice and achieve a higher practice and test performance as compared to learners receiving full support or no support during practice. This study confirms the beneficial effects of fading support on navigation but no effects of fading were found on practice and test performance.     

Explorations of relationships among learners, tasks, and learning

Based on a critical re-analysis of cognitive load theory (CLT), Schnotz and Kürschner identified the need for research on more sensitive ways of assessing learner characteristics, both prior to and during instruction, in order to understand learning processes and outcomes. One emergent theme of the papers in this special issue is that the “same” learning environment is differentially demanding and produces different results depending on characteristics of the learners, most importantly their knowledge in the task domain. These findings indicate that to optimize learning outcomes, theories of instructional design and learning need to be more adaptive and reflect the nuances of interactions among learners, tasks, and instructional supports.     

The impact of learner characteristics on information utilization strategies, cognitive load experienced, and performance in hypermedia learning

Against the background of an adaptation of Cognitive Load Theory to learner-controlled settings we investigated the impact of learner characteristics on information utilization strategies, cognitive load, and learning outcomes in a hypermedia environment. Based on the data of 79 students, five clusters of students were identified according to their learner characteristics by means of a cluster analysis. Further analyses showed that learners with more favorable characteristics (i.e., higher prior knowledge, more complex epistemological beliefs, more positive attitudes towards mathematics, better cognitive and metacognitive strategy use) tended to show a more adaptive example utilization behavior, reported less cognitive load, and solved more problems correctly than learners with less favorable characteristics.     

Web-based learning interaction and learning styles

This paper reports a study exploring the learning styles and perceptions of a group of undergraduate and postgraduate learners in a university in the UK in relation to using the web for learning. In particular, we explore the sequential/global learning style dimension (which is concerned with the progress of understanding) in relation to three categories of web‐based interaction: learner‐tutor, learner‐learner, and learner‐information. An Index of Learning Styles is used as the tool to explore this dimension. The findings are presented with regard to the learning preferences of a group of learners towards these three categories of interaction. We conclude with a discussion of these findings in relation to Interactive Learning Systems (ILSs) design.     

Instruction-first and problem-solving-first approaches: alternative pathways to learning complex tasks

According to cognitive load theory, using worked examples is an effective and efficient instructional strategy for initial cognitive skill acquisition for novice learners, as it reduces cognitive load and frees up cognitive resources to build task competence. Contrary to this, productive failure (as well as invention learning, desirable difficulties and other problem-solving-first) frameworks suggest that scaffolded problem-solving activities (a generation phase) preceding explicit instruction enhance learners’ performance. The reported experimental study investigated the effectiveness of different levels of instructional guidance provided to students during the learning phase preceding explicit instruction in standard solution procedures in enhancing students’ engagement and transfer problem-solving skills. Specifically, the study compared partially-guided or unguided attempts at generating problem solutions as opposed to comprehensive guidance, in the form of a worked example. Levels of experienced cognitive load and learner motivation were evaluated in addition to delayed post-test performance scores. There were no differences between the three groups on the transfer post-test outcomes, even though the condition with fully-guided worked examples prior to the explicit instruction expectedly reduced cognitive load relative to the conditions without such guidance. There were also differences between the conditions on some sub-dimensions of the motivation scale. In general, the findings indicate that similar overall outcomes (delayed transfer performance) could be achieved by different sequences of instructional tasks aimed at achieving different sets of specific goals.     

Working memory capacity and disfluency effect: an aptitude-treatment-interaction study

According to Cognitive Load Theory, learning material should be designed in a way to decrease unnecessary demands on working memory (WM). However, recent research has shown that additional demands on WM caused by less legible texts lead to better learning outcomes. This so-called disfluency effect can be assumed as a metacognitive regulation process during which learners assign their cognitive resources depending on the perceived difficulty of a cognitive task. Increasing the perceived difficulty associated with a cognitive task stimulates deeper processing and a more analytic and elaborative reasoning. Yet there are studies which could not replicate the disfluency effect indicating that disfluency might be beneficial only for learners with particular learner characteristics. Additional demands on working memory caused by disfluent texts are possibly just usable by learners with a high working memory capacity. Therefore the present study investigated the aptitude-treatment-interaction between working memory capacity and disfluency. Learning outcomes were measured by means of a retention, a comprehension, and a transfer test. Moreover, the three types of cognitive load (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane) were assessed. The results revealed significant aptitude-treatment-interaction effects with respect to retention and comprehension. Working memory capacity had a significant influence only in the disfluency condition: The higher the working memory capacity, the better the retention and comprehension performance in the disfluency condition. No effects were found with respect to transfer or cognitive load. Thus, the role of metacognitive regulation and its possible effects on cognitive load need further investigation.     

Learner control in animated multimedia instructions

The interactivity principle in multimedia learning states that giving learners control over pace and order of instructions decreases cognitive load and increases transfer performance. We tested this guideline by comparing a learner-paced instruction with a system-paced instruction. Time-on-task and interactive behavior were logged, and were also related to interest, prior knowledge, and cognitive involvement. We successfully replicated the interactivity principle in terms of better transfer. However, this coincided with a large increase in time-on-task. Also, large individual differences existed in the use of learner control options, which were mostly unrelated to the other variables. Thus, the benefits of introducing learner control in multimedia learning are at the expense of learning efficiency, and it remains unclear for whom the interactivity principle works best.     

归因理论视域下影响二语习得的非智力因素探讨

外语学界一直关注二语习得的效果问题,并针对外语学习特点注重改进教学方法和学习策略积极加以应对。二语习得的过程是一个非常复杂的过程,影响因素颇多。在二语习得过程中,更应关注学习主体本身潜在因素的挖掘,重视其内在潜能的激发和利用。归因理论提出的不稳定因素更会增强失败者成功的希望的主张对研究二语习得的影响因素提供了借鉴。通过调查分析,二语习得成败与非智力因素关系紧密,学习主体自我效能判断、动机认知因素、情感因素、意志调节因素等不稳定的非智力因素都是二语习得取得成功的关键因素。只有加强对这些非智力因素的控制,才能取得二语习得的最佳效果。     

样例学习研究及其课改意蕴

样例学习是学习者从例示了一般概念、原理、程序的例子中习得解决问题方法的一种学习方式.和单纯的问题解决学习方式相比,样例学习不仅费时少、迁移效果好,还可减轻学生学习时的认知负荷.早期的样例学习研究集中于数学、物理等学科的单内容样例的学习,最近的研究开始涉及没有明确解题步骤的双内容样例的学习.样例学习的重要机制是学习者对样...     

Using Cognitive Load to Evaluate Participation and Design of an Asynchronous Course

Abstract

This study examined the effects of cognitive load experienced by e-learners as they negotiated the tasks required for successful participation within an asynchronous course room, specifically examining the relationship between measured cognitive load and the learners' confidence in completing their course. The results indicated that learner confidence, or more specifically self-efficacy, is the single most important factor in determining the success of e-learners. It appears that insufficient time was expended orienting learners to the virtual classrooms and to the technology necessary for participation.     

The effects of diagrams and time-compressed instruction on learning and learners’ perceptions of cognitive load

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of diagrams and time-compressed instruction on learning and learners’ perceptions of cognitive load. The following design factors, visuals (visuals and non-visuals) and time-compressed instruction (0%-normal paced, 25, and 50%) were presented to 216 university students to analyze learning in a multimedia environment. Participants listened to audio instruction of the heart and those in the visuals condition viewed 19 diagrams that corresponded to the verbal instruction. The dependent variables consisted of four achievement tests: drawing, identification, terminology, and comprehension. Review behaviors (back and replay buttons) and learners’ perceptions of cognitive load served as additional dependent variables. The results of this study indicate that listening to normal or moderately compressed (25%) instruction in a multimedia environment supports learning. At these speeds, cognitive load is not increased thus allowing learners to gain a conceptual understanding of the material.     

A model for self‐regulated distance language learning

The role of learner autonomy and self‐regulated learning in distance education has received much attention. The application of these concepts impacts course design and, potentially, learner achievement. In the case of distance language learning, course designers must consider not only how to help learners gain communicative competence but also language learner strategies that support success. Although the concepts of autonomy and self‐regulated learning share some similarities, they have been variously defined and applied to distance education. Current research and discussion has not synthesized the ways in which these factors can be more fully utilized to improve distance education. Based on a critical review and synthesis of the literature on autonomy and self‐regulation, this article contributes a new model for distance language learning. The model provides guidance for course designers and assists instructors in supporting their students.     

基于学习认知地图的开放学习者模型研究

学习者模型是自适应学习系统的重要组成部分,然而传统的学习者模型往往是封闭的,学习者无法知晓模型的具体内容。文章从学习者模型内容开放的视角,设计了能够表征学习者认知状态和知识结构并推送学习路径与学习同伴的开放学习者模型——学习认知地图。基于学习元平台,文章从认知状态评测、知识结构计算和可视化呈现三个方面对学习认知地图的构建过程进行了阐述。之后,文章将构建的学习认知地图应用于中学信息技术课堂,实践结果表明:学习认知地图能够提升学生的学习态度,同时学生对具有学习认知地图支持的在线学习方式满意度更高。文章设计并检验了作为一种开放学习者模型实践样态的学习认知地图的效果,以期为开放学习者模型的进一步研究提供参考。     

认知视角下的动机理论对外语学习的启示

动机是影响外语学习非常重要的情感因素之一。本文从认知的角度分析影响外语学习的动机因素,探讨认知的动机理论给外语学习带来的启示,并提出相应的对策。