Behavior of young children with Down syndrome before the mirror: exploration

Exploratory behaviors of Down Syndrome (DS) and Nondelayed (ND) young children between the mental ages of 16 and 32 months were examined in 4 situations involving finding things seen in a large standing mirror: free play, marked face, finding the reflected mother, and finding a reflected toy. Behaviors coded from videotape included observing the self making faces, kissing the mirror, patting the mirror, comparing a person or object with the mirror image, looking behind the mirror, touching own body, and staring at another's image. Both ND and DS children used these behaviors and were able to adapt their choice of behaviors to demands of particular tasks. However, DS and ND children differed in number, type, and frequency of exploratory behaviors. DS children used a greater variety of behaviors and used them more frequently than ND children. DS children used a less focused selection of behaviors, and behaviors involving switching attention were performed only by ND children. For most behavior examined, mental and chronological age were not related to amount of exploration. Results are interpreted in terms of the role of different behaviors in exploration of the mirror.     

Vitamin therapy and children with Down syndrome: a review of research

The claim that large doses of vitamin-mineral supplements benefit mentally retarded children has captured the attention of the general public and the medical profession. A study by Harrell, Capp, Davis, Pearless, and Ravitz (1981) reported increases in IQ and improvements in behavior among mentally retarded subjects (one third of whom were children with Down syndrome) receiving nutritional supplementation. However, subsequent studies, focusing exclusively on children with Down syndrome and using less flawed research designs, have demonstrated that vitamin therapy is not useful for members of this population.     

Literacy skills in children and adolescents with Down syndrome

Research has found that many children andadolescents with Down syndrome acquire somelevel of reading ability. Studies to date havedocumented that cognition, language, andphonological awareness contribute tovariability observed in performance onconventional literacy measures for thispopulation, although the extent of relativecontributions varies among studies. Less isknown about the relationship of early literacyskills to conventional reading, or howrelationships among variables that supportliteracy acquisition are similar or differentfrom those observed in typically developingchildren. In this project, cognition,language, early literacy, phonologicalawareness and reading skills were examined in agroup of children and adolescents with Downsyndrome (aged 5;06 to 17;03) and a group oftypically developing children (aged 3;06 to5;03) matched for nonverbal cognition. Resultsrevealed broad variability in performance onearly literacy and reading measures in personswith Down syndrome. Comparisons with mental age-matchedchildren indicated differences in the relativecontribution of language and cognition toreading ability, with language being a strongerpredictor in the group with Down syndrome.     

Supporting children with Down syndrome within mainstream education settings: parental reflections

This study draws upon data gathered from five parents who have children with Down syndrome (DS), being educated in mainstream settings in England. The parental perspective of practices, both inclusive and otherwise, is explored through a qualitative lens. Findings suggest that early intervention, such as portage, is important. However, access to services varied across authorities. Additionally, some participants highlighted issues around the Education, Health Care Plan and subsequent annual reviews. Overall, this study offers examples of inclusive practice in the areas of supporting language and communication needs, parental partnership and transition between educational phases for children with DS. However, there are inconsistencies across providers and there is a need for more research into these areas in the future.     

Exploring opportunities available and perceived barriers to physical activity engagement in children and young people with Down syndrome

Primary objective: The aim of this study was to explore physical activity (PA) amongst children and young people with Down syndrome (DS). Method and procedures: The youth physical activity promotion model (YPAP) was used to inform semi-structured interviews to explore PA of children and young people with DS. Participants were three males and five females, aged between 6 and 21?years (16.38?+?5.04?years (mean?+?SD)) who had been diagnosed with the condition DS. Dyadic interviews were conducted with the participant and their parent(s). The interviews were recorded and transcribed, and inductive and deductive analyses of the data were completed. Main outcomes and results: The results were structured around the YPAP Model’s key themes included: enabling factors (seasonal variation, transport, type of activity and independence); predisposing factors (enjoyment, social interaction, dislikes of PA, following instructions, and understanding of PA); reinforcing factors (support and opportunities, parents, and care providers); and barriers to PA engagement (ear problems). Conclusion: The children and young people with DS in the study typically only engaged in fun, unstructured activities. Key facilitators for PA participation were social interactions and parental support. Increasing the level of independence for people with DS within adolescence may have beneficial effects for PA participation in later life.     

A deficit in rime awareness in children with Down syndrome

This paper reports 3 studies comparing thereading and phonological skills of childrenwith Down syndrome (DS) and younger normallydeveloping children of similar reading level.In Study 1, the two groups did not differ insight word or nonword reading, but the childrenwith DS did marginally less well on syllablesegmentation, rhyme and phoneme detectiontasks. Group differences in syllable andphoneme awareness appeared attributable todifferences in verbal ability (BPVS, vocabularyknowledge); however, a significant impairmentin rhyme detection remained in an analysis ofsub-groups equated in vocabulary knowledge. Thedeficit in rhyme observed in DS was replicatedin Studies 2 and 3 using simplified tests ofrhyme judgement, with the majority of childrenwith DS performing at chance on the rhymemeasures. In contrast, the two groups did notdiffer in their ability to detect phonemes inany of the 3 studies and performed above chancein initial phoneme detection and alliterationjudgement tasks, although the identification offinal phonemes was at a much lower level. Correlational analyses indicated a relationshipbetween phonological skills and reading inboth groups. However, for children with DS,letter-sound knowledge did not predict readingwhereas it did for normal controls. It issuggested that children with DS do not possessfull phoneme awareness; although they canidentify initial phonemes in words, they do notunderstand phoneme invariance and may rely lesson phonological skills for reading thancontrols.     

Training reading and phoneme awareness skills in children with Down syndrome

The authors report a short-term reading intervention study involving 15 children with Down syndrome (DS) who attended mainstream schools. The intervention programme taught children phoneme segmentation and blending skills in the context of learning letter-sounds and working with words in books. The children were taught by their learning support assistants, who received special training for this purpose. Compared to a waiting group, a group of eight children with DS improved significantly on measures of early literacy skills (letter-sound knowledge, Early Word Recognition) following eight weeks of intervention. The waiting group started to make progress once they received the intervention. Both groups maintained progress on the literacy measures five months after the intervention had finished. The results suggest that children with DS can benefit from structured, phonics-based reading intervention.     

Visions for literacy: parents’ aspirations for reading in children with Down syndrome

Although children with Down syndrome (DS) can learn to read, few studies have explored parental perspectives on the reading development of this group of children. This article, written by Leila Ricci and Anna Osipova, from California State University, explores visions and expectations regarding reading held by parents of children with Down syndrome in the US. Parents of 50 children with DS (aged three to 13 years) completed a survey about their children's interest in reading and responded to open‐ended questions inquiring about their views on their children's reading development. A majority of parents in this study described their children's positive attitude toward reading, stated their reading‐related goals for their children, defined their children's relative strengths in reading, and shared strategies used in the home to promote literacy in this population. Parents pay close attention to and have high expectations for their children's reading achievement, and thereby would benefit from partnerships with informed educators willing and capable of teaching reading to children with DS.     

The efficacy of `whole word' versus `analytic' reading instruction for children with Down syndrome

An intervention study was conducted toinvestigate whether children with Down syndrome(DS) would benefit from an `analytic' approachto reading instruction, which encompassedexplicit training in phonological awareness.Participants were seven English-speakingchildren with DS aged 8;6 (years;months) to11;1, who demonstrated little or nononword-reading ability prior to intervention.The children received weekly instruction (forsix weeks) in reading aloud 30 regularly speltmonosyllables (e.g., ten, bake) using an`analytic' approach, in which words werelearned by combining onsets with rimes (fourchildren), or a `whole-word' approach (threechildren). Participants' oral reading wasassessed pre- and post-intervention using areading test comprising the 30 trained wordsand 30 untrained (generalisation) words. Mostchildren (six out of seven) read more trainingwords correctly after intervention than before,with significant improvement shown by fourchildren (two trained analytically, and twotrained with whole words). More importantly,reading of generalisation words improvedsignificantly in only three children, all ofwhom had received analytic training. It wasconcluded that children with DS benefit from ananalytic approach to reading instruction, eventhough their auditory-verbal memory (assessedusing digit span) is poor.     

Children with Down syndrome: Implications of a contextual approach

Earlier research on the development of children with Down syndrome is summarized from the standpoint of the development-difference debate. While some progress is recognized, it is argued that this research has neglected to theorize the concept of context and has, therefor, to a large extent created a notion of a universal child with Down syndrome. Three such neglected contexts are discussed; (1) the controlled setting, (2) the life context of the children, and, (3) culture as a context of development. With the point of departure in the criticism of how these contexts have been theorized, it is argued that (1) it is difficult to search for specific weaknesses in children with Down syndrome, (2) little is known about what factors in the lifes of these children that are important to development, and, (3) since cultures structure development differently, the development of children with Down syndrome will consequently vary from culture to culture. An outline of a framework for the study of the development of children with Down syndrome is proposed as well as its methodological implications. It is suggested that a partly new way of speaking about the development of children with Down syndrome is needed.     

Shared book reading behaviours of children with Down Syndrome before and after participation in the MultiLit reading tutor program: an exploratory study

This exploratory study compares the shared book reading behaviours of five school aged children with DS (aged 11 years 6 months to 15 years 6 months) before and after participation in an intervention which included selected components of the MultiLit Reading Tutor Program. The program was delivered 1:1 to participants each week over a 12 week period. Analysis of the average performance across the group revealed that the proportion of reading errors relative to the number of words read from preintervention to postintervention were significantly reduced. Significant improvement was also seen in shared book reading fluency following intervention. Individual case study data is also presented. Postintervention, reading errors per minute were reduced for two participants (P4 and P5). Reading dysfluencies per minute decreased for two participants (P1 and P5) while all participants improved in shared book reading fluency. Preliminary results suggest that children with DS can generalise skills taught in the MultiLit Reading Tutor Program to shared book reading, although variability regarding changes in literacy abilities postintervention was observed.     

Self‐awareness in Young Adults with Down Syndrome: I. Awareness of Down syndrome and disability

The limited literature on awareness of differences and stigma in people with intellectual disabilities is largely sociological, emphasises pathology, and has rarely used a developmental perspective with representative samples. Interviews, photographs and standardised tests were used to investigate such awareness with 77 young adults with Down syndrome and their parents. Awareness and social categorisation were significantly associated with verbal mental age, and closely approximated the typical social‐cognitive developmental sequence. No associations were found between awareness and chronological age, parent telling, gender, and mainstream experience. Only those with verbal mental ages from around 8 years were making relative social comparisons and beginning to form complex social categories of Down syndrome/disability. Around 13% were rated as showing a negative emotional reaction to Down syndrome/disability, and most of these were male. A similar percentage, mostly female and with higher verbal mental ages, discussed concerns and limitations. Even so, they all had high self‐esteem and awareness of Down syndrome and disability did not appear to be a major issue. A number of coping mechanisms to maintain a positive sense of self were suggested. It is argued that both sociological and developmental models are required to inform parent and professional attempts to facilitate self‐awareness.     

Visual messages: Making sense with young children

Whether we know it or not, the environment teaches children how to read. The symbols, pictures, and print in our classrooms are a foundation for later reading. Children need useful and practical information communicated through visual messages.Sandra L. Gordon and Beth C. Anderson are Associate Professors in the Education Department at Moorhead State University in Minnesota.     

Examining teachers' beliefs through action research: guidance and counseling/pastoral care reflected in the cross-cultural mirror

The TRIO Project (Teacher Training & Research for Individuals & Organisations) began with the notion that cross-cultural reflection could be an effective tool by which teachers could examine their personal belief systems about learning, teaching and pupil guidance. University-based teacher educators from four countries, the Netherlands, Russia, the United States and the United Kingdom, worked collaboratively to create this 3-year project. They first had teachers systematically examine their own teaching practices at the local level using action research strategies and then brought them together in an annual international workshop, where the teachers from all four countries were able to reflect upon their work and their pedagogical belief systems using a cross-cultural lens. This article describes the process used to facilitate that exchange, and what was learned by both teachers and teacher-educators about the value of cross-cultural reflective practice leading to personal and professional growth.     

Goal-Directed Behavior in Children with Down Syndrome: The Role of Joint Play Situations

Children's goal-directed behaviors were examined in independent play sessions before and after a joint-play interaction with their mothers for a group of children with Down syndrome (n = 22) and a control group of mental and language age matched typically developing children (n = 24). While both groups showed comparable amounts of time spent in independent goal-directed play during the pre session and similar play responses with their mothers during the joint play session, only the control children significantly increased their goal-directed behavior from the pre to the post session. Maternal behaviors that provided information about how to use the toy predicted increases from the pre to post sessions in independent goal-directed play but only for the control children. These findings suggest that children with Down syndrome may have more difficulty transferring the goal-directed play behaviors they can use with support from their mothers to an independent play situation. Findings are discussed in relation to early education program design for children with Down syndrome.     

Goal-Directed Behavior in Children with Down Syndrome: The Role of Joint Play Situations

Children's goal-directed behaviors were examined in independent play sessions before and after a joint-play interaction with their mothers for a group of children with Down syndrome (n = 22) and a control group of mental and language age matched typically developing children (n = 24). While both groups showed comparable amounts of time spent in independent goal-directed play during the pre session and similar play responses with their mothers during the joint play session, only the control children significantly increased their goal-directed behavior from the pre to the post session. Maternal behaviors that provided information about how to use the toy predicted increases from the pre to post sessions in independent goal-directed play but only for the control children. These findings suggest that children with Down syndrome may have more difficulty transferring the goal-directed play behaviors they can use with support from their mothers to an independent play situation. Findings are discussed in relation to early education program design for children with Down syndrome.     

Teaching about the importance of trees: a study with young children

This paper reports on a study undertaken with the primary aim of investigating the effect of the storytelling teaching approach on kindergarten children's retention of ideas about the importance of trees. The study also assessed the effect of storytelling on children's intention to participate in a tree planting activity that they had to select from a list of activities. The story that was created included such elements as binary opposites, mental images, mystery, and wonder, according to Kieran Egan's theory. The study utilized a two‐group design, was conducted in three phases (pre‐test, intervention, and post‐test), lasted 11 weeks, and its results provide evidence of the effectiveness of the storytelling approach when compared with the traditional method of expository teaching complemented with visual images (pictures) of trees and their importance to human beings. The pedagogical appropriateness of the story, which was based upon the binary pair of opposites ‘security–insecurity’, is also discussed in the paper.     

The neuropsychology of Down syndrome: evidence for hippocampal dysfunction

This study tested prefrontal and hippocampal functions in a sample of 28 school-aged (M = 14.7 years, SD = 2.7) individuals with Down syndrome (DS) compared with 28 (M = 4.9 years, SD = .75) typically developing children individually matched on mental age (MA). Both neuropsychological domains were tested with multiple behavioral measures. Benchmark measures of verbal and spatial function demonstrated that this DS sample was similar to others in the literature. The main finding was a significant Group x Domain interaction effect indicating differential hippocampal dysfunction in the group with DS. However, there was a moderate partial correlation (r = .54, controlling for chronological age) between hippocampal and prefrontal composite scores in the DS group, and both composites contributed unique variance to the prediction of MA and adaptive behavior in that group. In sum, these results indicate a particular weakness in hippocampal functions in DS in the context of overall cognitive dysfunction. It is interesting that these results are similar to what has been found in a mouse model of DS. Such a model will make it easier to understand the neurobiological mechanisms that lead to the development of hippocampal dysfunction in DS.