The Statistical Interpretation of Degrees of Freedom

A Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to 431 intermediate grade students enrolled in three inner-city elementary schools which are part of the Columbus (Ohio) Public Schools. The Survey is a multidimensional instrument which provides measures for eight different dimensions of reading attitude. An ANOVA was performed on scores for each of the eight dimensions to identify developmental changes in reading attitude during the intermediate grades. The results of the ANOVA’s and post hoc comparisons indicated significant patterns of change for the following dimensions: Expressed Reading Difficulty, Reading as Direct Reinforcement, Silent vs Oral Reading, and Comics. In contrast, the Reading as Enjoyment, Alternative Learning Modes, and Reading Group dimensions failed to show appreciable developmental changes.     

The relationship of reading attitudes to academic aptitude,locus of control,and field independence

The relationship between eight dimensions of reading attitude and measures of academic aptitude, locus of control, and field independence was investigated for sample of 322 inner-city Detroit fifth graders. Verbal academic aptitude correlated significantly with the Expressed Reading Difficulty, Reading Anxiety, Silent vs. Oral Reading, and Reading as Enjoyment reading attitude dimensions, while nonverbal academic aptitude correlated with Expressed Reading Difficulty and Reading Anxiety. The Expressed Reading Difficulty, Reading Anxiety, Reading Group, Reading as Direct Reinforcement, and Reading as Enjoyment dimensions were significantly related to the I+ score; reading attitudes were not related to the I- score. Only the Expressed Reading Difficulty dimension correlated with field independence. The meaning of these relationships was discussed.     

Normative data and reliability estimates for eight dimensions of reading attitude

The Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to a sample of 159 fifth graders and 156 sixth graders enrolled in a middle school in rural Northeastern Ohio. The 92 attitudinal items comprising the Survey were read aloud by the teacher while the students followed along reading silently from their booklets. Statistical analysis consisted of computing means, standard deviations, standard errors of measurement, and coefficient alpha reliability estimates for the eight dimensions of reading attitude included in the Survey. The reliability estimates ranged from .89 for Reading as Enjoyment and .88 for Expressed Reading Difficulty to .74 for Reading Group and .76 for Reading as Direct Reinforcement. The reliability estimates for the other four dimensions were as follows: Alternative Learning Modes, .79; Reading Anxiety, .78; Silent vs. Oral Reading, .78; and Comics, .77.     

Normative data for eight dimensions of reading attitudes: Canadian public school students

The Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to 613 fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade students enrolled in the schools that serve the metropolitan area of a small city in Ontario, Canada. Means, standard deviations, coefficient of alpha reliability estimates, and standard errors of measurement were computed for the eight dimensions of reading attitude included in the Survey. The reliability estimates for the respective dimensions are as follows: Expressed Reading Difficulty, α = .88, Reading as Direct Reinforcement, α = .83, Reading as Enjoyment, α = .89, Alternative Learning Modes, α = .72, Reading Group, α = .81, Reading Anxiety, α = .82, Silent vs. Oral Reading, α = .83, and Comics, α = .79.     

Normative data and reliability estimates for eight dimensions of reading attitude,part IV—private school learning disabled students

The Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to 167 intermediate and high school students who were enrolled in three private schools for LD children in the Southeast. Statistical analysis consisted of computing means, standard deviations, standard errors of measurement, and coefficient alpha reliability estimates for the eight dimensions of reading attitude included in the Survey. The reliability estimates for the respective dimensions were as follows: Expressed Reading Difficulty, alpha = .82; Reading as Direct Reinforcement, alpha = .72; Reading as Enjoyment, alpha = .87; Alternative Learning Modes, alpha = .72; Reading Group, alpha = .74; Reading Anxiety, alpha = .71; Silent vs. Oral Reading, alpha = .78; and Comics, alpha = .75. The current results viewed in conjunction with the results of the three previous normative studies seem to support the psychometric soundness of The Survey of Reading Attitudes across differing samples.     

Normative data for eight dimensions of reading attitude,Part III—suburban parochial school students

The Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to 235 intermediate-grade students enrolled in a suburban parochial school in Northeastern Ohio. Statistical analysis consisted of computing means, standard deviations, standard errors of measurement, and coefficient alpha reliability estimates for the eight dimensions of reading attitude included in the Survey. The reliability estimates for the respective dimensions are as follows: Expressed Reading α=.88; Reading as Direct Reinforcement, α=.79; Reading as Enjoyment, α=.89; Alternative Learning Modes, α=.71; Reading Group, α=.76; Reading Anxiety, α=.82; Silent vs. Oral Reading, α=.79; and Comics, α=.72.     

Discriminating between attitudes expressed by normal and disabled readers

The Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to 84 normal and 116 disabled readers from the intermediate grades, and a discriminate function analysis was performed on their scores for the eight dimensions of reading attitudes measured by the Survey. The findings indicate that Expressed Reading Difficulty, Reading as Enjoyment, and Reading Group are the three variables that discriminate between these two groups. In comparison with normal readers, disabled readers are more likely to feel negatively about their reading group, less likely to see themselves as pursuing reading for its intrinsic value, and more likely to perceive of themselves as having difficulty with reading. However, the extent to which these findings can be generalized beyond the present sample of white Appalachian students must be established through future research.     

Normative data for eight dimensions of reading attitude,part II—inner-city remedial readers

The Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to a sample of 90 remedial readers enrolled in seven different inner-city elementary schools in a large Midwestern city. The Survey items were read aloud by the examiner while the students followed along reading the 92 attitudinal statements silently from their booklet. Means, standard deviations, standard errors of measurement, and coefficient alpha reliability estimates were determined for the eight dimensions of reading attitudes measured by the Survey. The following reliability estimates were obtained: Expressed Reading Difficulty, α=.89; Reading as Direct Reinforcement, α=.76; Reading as Enjoyment, α=.85; Alternative Learning Modes, α=.67; Reading Group, α=.72; Reading Anxiety, α=.72; Silent vs Oral Reading, α=.76; and Comics, α=.70.     

Test-retest reliability estimates for eight dimensions of reading attitude

The Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to a sample comprised of 68 intermediate-grade students from one elementary school in a large city school system for purposes of determining the reliability of the eight attitudinal dimensions which it measures. The test-retest interval was seven days. The following reliability estimates were obtained for the eight dimensions of reading attitude included in the Survey: Expressed Reading Difficulty. r_tt=.94; Reading as Direct Reinforcement, r_tt=.90; Reading as Enjoyment. r_tt=.95; Alternative Learning Modes. r_tt= 82; Reading Anxiety. r_tt=.84; Reading Group, r_tt=.91; Silent vs. Oral Reading, r_tt=90; and Comics, r_tt=.89.     

Effects of varying text difficulty levels on second language (L2) reading attitudes and reading comprehension

This study investigated the effects of varying text difficulty on L2 reading attitudes and reading comprehension. To provide the optimal challenge for L2 reading, comprehensible input hypothesis postulates that choosing text slightly harder than the learner's current level will enhance reading comprehension. Fifty‐four freshmen from one university in central Taiwan were randomly divided into two groups. Students in the ‘i − 1’ group were given level 3 and level 4 Oxford Graded Readers while students in the ‘i + 1’ group were provided with level 5 and level 6. Quantitative data were obtained via the English Placement Exam and the Reading Attitudes Survey. Results from the pretest and posttest of the Reading Attitudes Survey suggest that the i − 1 group has gained significantly in reading attitudes, whereas no difference in reading attitude was identified with the i + 1 group. Results also indicate that varied difficulty levels of reading text did not significantly affect participants' reading comprehension.     

The dimensions of reading attitude for children in the intermediate grades

This study represents the first phase of an ongoing research program aimed at identifying the dimensions of reading attitude and determining how these dimensions relate to a broader range of variables such as reading achievement, scholastic aptitude, classroom behavior, and cognitive styles. The 150 items which comprise the experimental edition of A Survey of Reading Altitudes (Wallbrown, Brown, & Engin, 1974) were factor analyzed along with measures of scholastic aptitude, reading vocabulary, and reading comprehension. The analysis was based on the responses of 853 intermediate grade students. The attitude items were presented orally to control for reading problems, but the students also had booklets so they could read the items to themselves. Seven independent dimensions of reading attitude and one reading achievement factor were identified, interpreted, and discussed. The findings are encouraging, since they suggest that investigating the expressed reading attitudes of intermediate grade children constitutes a promising line of educational research.     

A factor analysis of reading attitudes along with measures of reading achievement and scholastic aptitude

The construct validity of the Survey of Reading Attitudes was investigated through a principal-factor analysis of the 88 items comprising the scale, along with measures of scholastic aptitude and reading skills (vocabulary and comprehension). The sample included 600 students selected so that 200 (100 boys and 100 girls) were obtained from each of the three intermediate grades. The Survey was administered orally to class-size groups, but copies of the booklet were also available to students. The factor structure showed a reading achievement factor along with the following eight dimensions of reading attitude: (1) expressed reading difficulty, (2) reading as direct reinforcement, (3) reading as enjoyment, (4) alternative learning modes, (5) silent vs. oral reading, (6) reading anxiety, (7) reading group, and (8) comics.     

A Critical Analysis of the Sources of Reading Recovery: An Empiricist Perspective

This discussion of the sources of Reading Recovery presents the results of an investigation into whether or not this relatively costly, tutoring remedial reading program, designed for primary-grade students, is based on relevant experimental evidence as to how these students best learn to read. The general finding of the study was that Reading Recovery principles and practices are not based firmly on the experimental evidence that supports the so-called bottom-up model of children's reading development. To the contrary of Reading Recovery, Marie Clay, favors so-called top-down principles and models of reading instruction. Reading Recovery uses several empirically unverified procedures to decide which students are admitted to its tutoring sessions, to determine the progress in reading rehabilitation these tutees make, and to judge when students should be discontinued from Reading Recovery tutelage. The details on the shortcomings of Reading Recovery are judged to be prima facie evidence that it may not be a cost-effective educational innovation. Further authentication in that regard, it is pointed out, are recent studies by disinterested researchers who report that: (a) the initial successes of Reading Recovery in helping disabled readers overcome their handicap are only temporary in nature, and (b) the majority of the precepts and procedures prescribed for Reading Recovery by Marie Clay reflect a top-down orientation to reading development, as does the Whole Language (WL) philosophy of reading attainment. Educators and school boards should take this orientation of Reading Recovery under advisement when considering its purchase, it is urged.     

How many colours are necessary to increase the reading speed of children with visual stress? A comparison of two systems

We measured the increase in reading speed afforded by two currently available systems of coloured overlays: the Intuitive Overlays, which provide a choice of 30 colours, and the Eye Level Reading Rulers, which provide a choice of 5. Forty‐eight pupils from a local authority primary school who reported experiencing symptoms of visual stress were individually tested with both systems in a random order, balanced across pupils. There were no differences between the systems as regards the children's preference or the reduction in symptoms of visual stress. However, there was a significant increase in reading speed with the Intuitive Overlays and no increase, on average, with the Reading Rulers. Pupils showing an increase in reading speed of more than 5% with either overlay were tested again, on this occasion with Intuitive Overlays of the conventional size and those cut to the (much smaller) size of the Reading Rulers. There was no difference in reading speed between the large and small overlays. Participants whose reading speed increased with the Reading Rulers by as much as with the Intuitive Overlays tended to be those who chose a similar colour for both overlays. The general pattern of results suggests that the Reading Rulers failed to increase reading speed because they do not offer sufficient colours and hence the benefits of the Reading Rulers in increasing reading speed are likely to be less than obtained with the Intuitive Overlays.     

Secondary science teachers' attitudes toward and beliefs about science reading and science textbooks

Science textbooks are dominant influences behind most secondary science instruction but little is known about teachers' approach to science reading. The purpose of this naturalistic study was to develop and validate a Science and Reading Questionnaire to assess secondary science teachers' attitudes toward science reading and their beliefs or informed opinions about science reading. A survey of 428 British Columbia secondary science teachers was conducted and 215 science teachers responded. Results on a 12-item Likert attitude scale indicated that teachers place high value on reading as an important strategy to promote learning in science and that they generally accept responsibility for teaching content reading skills to science students. Results on a 13-item Likert belief scale indicated that science teachers generally reject the text-driven model of reading, but they usually do not have well-formulated alternative models to guide their teaching practices. Teachers have intuitive beliefs about science reading that partially agree with many research findings, but their beliefs are fragmented and particularly sketchy in regard to the cognitive and metacognitive skills required by readers to learn from science texts. The findings for attitude, belief, and total scales were substantiated by further questions in the Science and Reading Questionnaire regarding classroom practice and by individual interviews and classroom observations of a 15-teacher subsample of the questionnaire respondents.     

Locus of control and reading attitude

The relationships between three measures of locus of control and eight dimensions of reading attitude were investigated for a sample of 431 inner-city children. The sample included the intermediate grade children enrolled in the 20 regular classrooms of the three elementary schools from the Columbus, Ohio, Public Schools. Correlation coefficients were computed between locus of control scores and the eight dimensions of reading attitude. Reading Anxiety showed a significant relationship with the I- score. This finding suggests that inner-city children who are willing to accept personal responsibility for negative events in their lives also tend to experience more anxiety about their reading. The other seven dimensions of reading attitude were not significantly related to internality scores.     

Teachers' attitude to and knowledge of metalinguistics in the process of learning to read

The aim of the current research was to examine pre‐service, general and special education teachers' attitudes to and knowledge of metalinguistics (awareness of language structure) in the process of learning to read. Effective teachers of reading, writing, and spelling need to understand the relationship between speech and print because these basic language processes are often deficient in cases of reading failure. Teachers also need to be knowledgeable in this area to benefit from psychologist and specialist reports. Using a questionnaire adapted from the Teacher attitudes about early reading and spelling survey and the Survey of linguistic knowledge, 93 pre‐service teachers; 209 general teachers and 38 special education teachers were surveyed. Results indicate a positive attitude to but poor knowledge of metalinguistics in the process of learning to read. Special education teachers performed significantly higher than both other groups on aspects of attitude and knowledge.     

Literacy as a complex activity: deconstructing the simple view of reading

The Rose Review into the teaching of early reading recommended that the conceptual framework incorporated into the National Literacy Strategy Framework for Teaching – the Searchlights model of reading and its development – should be replaced by the Simple View of Reading. In this paper, we demonstrate how these two frameworks relate to each other, and show that nothing has been lost in this transformation from Searchlights to Simple View: on the contrary, much has been gained. That nothing has been lost is demonstrated by consideration of the underlying complexity inherent in each of the two dimensions delineated in the Simple View. That much has been gained is demonstrated by the increased understanding of each dimension that follows from careful scientific investigation of each. The better we understand what is involved in each dimension, the better placed we are to unravel and understand the essential, complex and continual interactions between each dimension which underlie skilled reading. This has clear implications for further improving the early teaching of reading.     

What counts as reading? PIRLS,EastEnders and The Man on the Flying Trapeze

After briefly reviewing how reading is conceptualised in the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study and the English National Curriculum, this article examines two unofficial reading activities in a class of 10–11‐year‐olds' to see how far these activities match up with the official definitions of reading, or whether they involve a different kind of interaction with text. Although the children's unofficial reading appears trivial, fleeting and fragmentary, analysis shows that they are applying, albeit in a rudimentary way, the comprehension skills of retrieval, inference, interpretation and evaluation promoted by the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study and the National Curriculum. These skills, however, are driven by children's emotional, critical and creative responses to the texts. The children's reading is more imaginative and dialogic than is possible within official curriculum activities; they interweave emotional and moral response with argument and critique in one example and respond humorously to poetic rhyme, rhythm and tone in another. These spontaneous reading activities, where children are active, animated and engaged, provide evidence of important dimensions of literacy which are not adequately addressed in official surveys and curriculum assessment.