Processes of decision-making in small learning groups

This article focuses on possible interactions of students’ inter-individual differences and features of cooperative learning. In a first study the uncertainty- vs. certainty-orientation of 209 students (88 male, 121 female; age 13–14) in nine classrooms (8th grade) of two schools was assessed. Three uncertainty-oriented and three certainty-oriented students were selected in each classroom. In varying sequences they solved three tasks (subject matter: German, social studies, mathematics) first individually, than in orientation-homogeneous groups of three. While there were almost no differences in decision-making between uncertainty-oriented vs. certainty-oriented learners during individual sessions, learning in small groups instigated significant differences. These differences diminished with an increased structure/certainty of learning tasks. In a second study 138 students (52 female, 86 male) in all 12th grade classrooms of three schools learned for six weeks according to a modified ‘Jigsaw Puzzle Technique’. At one of the schools the teachers did not implement the cooperative model completely, but tried to stay ‘in control’. This had consequences for the study’s ability to observe students in situations of uncertain and certain learning tasks, but the researchers were able to include this school for testing critical variables.     

Where knowledge construction,equity, and context intersect: Student learning of science in small groups

To provide insight into the strengths and limitations of using groupwork to promote excellence and equity in science education, the researcher investigated how students using the Complex Instruction model of groupwork constructed scientific knowledge. Eighty sixth-grade students and one life science teacher at an urban middle school participated in this study. Qualitative analysis of videotapes and interviews makes clear that group discussions rarely moved beyond observational or procedural matters, that students of high status (perceived academic ability and popularity) had greater access to their groups' materials and discourse, and that students made few connections among the contexts of school, science, and everyday life. Quantitative analyses of participation during groupwork and performance on unit tests show that high-status students had significantly higher rates of on-task talk than their middle- or low-status counterparts, and that those students who talked more learned more as well. Thus, although groupwork should not be summarily dismissed as an instructional strategy, group tasks and implementation must be further refined to adequately address the dual goals of excellence and equity: Students need greater guidance in how to talk and do science, and teachers, greater assistance in eliminating differences in student participation and achievement. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 34: 1039–1065, 1997.     

Inquiry and groups: student interactions in cooperative inquiry-based science

Science education research has recommended cooperative inquiry based science in the primary science context for more than two decades but after more than 20 years, student achievement in science has not substantially improved. This study, through direct observation and analysis, investigated content-related student interactions in an authentic inquiry based primary science class setting. Thirty-one upper primary students were videotaped working in cooperative inquiry based science activities. Cooperative talk and negotiation of the science content was analysed to identify any high-level group interactions. The data show that while all groups have incidences of high-level content-related group interactions, the frequency and duration of these interactions were limited. No specific pattern of preceding events was identified and no episodes of high-level content-related group interactions were immediately preceded by the teacher’s interactions with the groups. This in situ study demonstrated that even without any kind of scaffolding, specific skills in knowing how to implement cooperative inquiry based science, high-level content-related group interactions did occur very briefly. Support for teachers to develop their knowledge and skills in facilitating cooperative inquiry based science learning is warranted to ensure that high-level content-related group interactions and the associated conceptual learning are not left to chance in science classrooms.     

Learning science in small multi-age groups: the role of age composition

The present study examines how the overall cognitive achievements in science of the younger children in a class where the students work in small multi-age groups are influenced by the number of older children in the groups. The context of the study was early-years education. The study has two parts: The first part involved classes attended by pre-primary children aged 4-6. The second part included one primary class attended by students aged 6-8 in addition to the pre-primary classes. Students were involved in inquiry-based science activities. Two sources of data were used: Lesson recordings and children’s assessments. The data from both sources were separately analyzed and the findings plotted. The resulting graphs indicate a linear relationship between the overall performance of the younger children in a class and the number of older ones participating in the groups in each class. It seems that the age composition of the groups can significantly affect the overall cognitive achievements of the younger children and preferentially determines the time within which this factor reaches its maximum value. The findings can be utilized in deciding the age composition of small groups in a class with the aim of facilitating the younger children’s learning in science.     

Exploring the characteristics of small groups within science and English secondary classrooms

Studies of primary education within the UK have shown that small groups can feature within classrooms; however, equivalent research within secondary education remains scarce. Research has established effective group work approaches, yet secondary teachers may encounter difficulties employing approaches tied to parameters embedded within primary education. This problem is compounded as minor adjustments to the conditions surrounding group work are known to have consequences for its efficacy within classrooms. This paper reports naturalistic systematic observation of group work practice within 23 science and English secondary classrooms in Scotland. Pupils completed tasks according to whether they were situated within group work or conventional classes. Forms of dialogue known to be conducive to learning were prevalent whilst pupils worked in groups. The change in pupils’ behaviours does not appear to stem from the content of teachers’ talk. Teachers’ behaviour suggested they approach small groups as smaller structures equivalent to a whole-class set-up.     

Personal meaning and learning in two Open University history of science courses

Students studying two Open University history of science courses were asked to assess their learning experience in terms of course valuing, content learning, personal learning and behavioural learning, using a questionnaire, the Course Valuing Inventory (CVI), developed in the United States. Their responses confirmed the reliability of the CVI. Factor analysis revealed two main factors, a General Course Factor and a Personal Learning Factor, and confirmed the internal validity of the sections of the CVI.There were significant differences between the responses of the students taking the two courses, with a higher rating from students on the allegedly more difficult course. Limited but significant correlations were found between the CVI responses and measures of attainment, higher for continuous assessment than for the examination. The overall results were similar to those in the original study.     

An evaluation of multimodal interactions with technology while learning science concepts

This paper explores the value of employing multiple modalities to facilitate science learning with technology. In particular, it is argued that when multiple modalities are employed, learners construct strong relations between physical movement and visual representations of motion. Body interactions with visual representations, enabled by interactive technologies, can encourage rhythmic cycles of engagement and reflection. A study was carried out to investigate how students interpret distance–time and velocity–time graphs created through hand movement. It explored the dynamic coupling between their body movements and graphs, and their subsequent interpretation and production of graphs on paper. The results show that physical manipulation of kinematics graphs has a significantly greater effect on students' ability to relate graphs to movement than observing the graphs being produced by someone else.     

Directed-inquiry approach to learning science process skills: treatment effects and aptitude-treatment interactions

The directed-inquiry approach to learning science process skills and scientific problem solving [DIAL(SPS)2] was developed to help high-school students gain the critical thinking skills required to solve problems in the biology lab. This curriculum integrated several learning strategies into a single approach: advance organizers, the learning cycle, concept maps, Vee diagrams, a focusing strategy, and writing. Two general questions were addressed. First, was the DIAL(SPS)2 treatment more effective than a conventional treatment? Second, was there evidence of an aptitude-treatment interaction? Four high-school biology classes taught by this investigator were used to test the DIAL(SPS)2 curriculum. Scheduling of students involved ability grouping. To test the curriculum in the most rigorous way, the experimental group consisted of average ability students and the comparison group consisted of above-average students. Both the groups were pretested in August and posttested in May. In the intervening time, the experimental group received the DIAL(SPS)2 treatment while the comparison group received a more traditional approach. Analysis of covariance revealed that the DIAL(SPS)2 curriculum had no significant effect on the learning of science process skills or on cognitive development. Aptitude-treatment interaction analyses revealed an interaction of DIAL(SPS)2 treatment and cognitive development.     

Progression in learning science

A national curriculum comprising statements of attainment at different levels must be underpinned by some idea of “progression” in learning. Questions arise as to the nature and meaning of progression. To gain a deeper insight into how children progress in their understanding of science, this research involves the construction and testing of a hypothetical learning sequence for the topic of forces. This interim report explains how children aged 7 to 13 are being interviewed to explore their explanations of phenomena involving forces. These explanations will be mapped onto the sequence to provide a multi-dimensional model of progression. Specializations: assessment, curriculum development. Specializations: assessment, investigations in science, progression in learning science.     

The cohesion of small groups in technology-mediated learning environments: A systematic literature review

The development of group cohesion for small groups in face-to-face educational learning settings has been widely studied for decades. The calibre of group cohesion within these contexts is typically associated with increases in performance, resulting in a productive collaboration that helps drive knowledge building and innovation within a learning environment. However, understanding and measuring cohesion in technology-mediated learning experiences still requires additional research. This paper reports on a systematic literature review of small groups in technology-mediated learning settings to explore the definitions of cohesion and the methodologies used for the measurements that have been identified arising in this area. Furthermore, the review provides a characterisation of the factors that impact collaborative learning in computer-supported environments, highlighting two important aspects: i) there is a significant gap in measuring cohesion using unobtrusive methods, such as relying on log or trace data and ii) there is a lack of longitudinal approaches to understand the emergence of cohesion. Finally, we discuss implications for future research in studying group cohesion.     

Challenge in learning and teaching science

Taking as a basis a conceptualisation of personal challenge having both cognitive/metacognitive (thinking) and affective (feeling) components, the nature and extent of perceived challenge in learning and teaching science were explored for seven teachers and thirty-seven students in five secondary schools over a period of five months. Findings suggest that many secondary students are not challenged by the science they learn in school. Similary, many secondary science teachers are insufficiently challenged by the task of teaching. There are indications, however, that science teaching and learning attitudes and practices can be improved if teachers work to diagnose and change key classroom factors that influence level of perceived challenge in learning.     

Humans,nonhumans and the mediation of workplace learning in the senior school curriculum

This paper brings together concepts drawn from Actor Network Theory and data generated in a research project that was conducted across the island of Ireland. Using surveys and interviews with school staff, that research explored the limits and possibilities for workplace learning as a valued component of the senior school curriculum. The current paper works with the data from the Republic of Ireland only and brings into focus the full range of actors – both human and nonhuman – that generate, or constrain, productive workplace learning opportunities for students. In the wake of the Great Recession, it is suggested that such opportunities have gained increased importance. The analysis suggests attention to the full range of actors highlights areas for intervention, and the possibilities for alliances that may be beneficial for students and their schools, for employers who provide workplace learning placements, and for vocational learning itself.     

Children's roles and use of evidence in science: an analysis of decision‐making in small groups

This article reports the findings of a research project concerned with children engaging in scientific argumentation. Discussion activities were designed to enable groups of children to use evidence when making decisions. The findings show a variation in the success with which children construct scientific arguments; some groups debate most of the evidence and consider a range of options, whilst others explore a limited range of options and discuss only the evidence that supports their choice. Analysis of the data indicates that the roles children adopt have an important influence on how evidence is used. Drawing of the work of Belbin, a management theorist who explored the roles adopted by members of successful teams, key roles emerged and a taxonomy of children's roles was devised. This article explains the characteristics of these roles and their effect on the way the groups use evidence when making decisions in science.     

Creative learning in science education

Conclusion Making sense of the world-including the world of school learning-involves making connections between new and existing experiences. Whether this process is called the construction (Piaget, 1929), the generation (Osborne & Wittrock, 1985) or the creation of meaning, the relation of new experiences to existing understandings, images, experiences, and feelings are essential to the process of learning with understanding. For many years cognitive psychology has focused on the making of logical, sequential, highly structured connections. However, the computer metaphor for human information processing and storage is now being questioned and cognitive psychologists are beginning to explore the new ‘unexplorable’-parallel, holistic, divergent, creative mental processes. In addition, this paper proposes a model of the learning process in terms of reciprocally interactive cognitive, affective, and social variables.