Dialogical PISA: correct answers are all alike,every incorrect answer is incorrect in its own way

Why do students give incorrect answers in PISA? What are the reasons for giving incorrect answers? Do all incorrect answers reflect only the lack of competence or might even a competent child make a mistake? The aim of this article is to contribute to a better understanding of these issues. In the current investigation, we selected six students who responded incorrectly to one PISA question in mathematics or science when they solved it individually. Then, we analyzed their understanding of the PISA task and their reasoning about it through a dialogical problem solving in triads to identify why they made an incorrect answer. Moreover, we tried to determine how the shared peer interaction might change the understanding and reasoning of the child and enable her/him to solve the task. The results of this study illustrate the differences between incorrect answers reflecting lack of competence and those incorrect answers, which appear for some other reasons. Based on the dialogical problem solving approach, we analyzed these two types of incorrect answers and the reasoning trajectories behind them.     

Spatial ability and its role in organic chemistry: A study of four organic courses

The relationship between spatial ability and performance in organic chemistry was studied in four organic chemistry courses designed for students with a variety of majors including agriculture, biology, health sciences, pre-med, pre-vet, pharmacy, medicinal chemistry, chemistry, and chemical engineering. Students with high spatial scores did significantly better on questions which required problem solving skills, such as completing a reaction or outlining a multi-step synthesis, and questions which required students to mentally manipulate two-dimensional representations of a molecule. Spatial ability was not significant, however, for questions which could be answered by rote memory or by the application of simple algorithms. Students who drew preliminary figures or extra figures when answering questions were more likely to get the correct answer. High spatial ability students were more likely to draw preliminary figures, even for questions that did not explicitly require these drawings. When questions required preliminary or extra figures, low spatial ability students were more likely to draw figures that were incorrect. Low spatial ability students were also more likely to draw structures that were lopsided, ill-proportioned, and nonsymmetric. The results of this study are interpreted in terms of a model which argues that high spatial ability students are better at the early stages of problem solving described as “understanding” the problem. A model is also discussed which explains why students who draw preliminary or extra figures for questions are more likely to get correct answers.     

Reading retardation or linguistic deficit? II: test-answering strategies in hearing and hearing-impaired school children

The reading test performances of 60 hearing and 60 hearing-impaired children of similar measured reading ages on the Southgate reading test were analysed. As in an earlier study using the Brimer Wide-span test it was shown that the performances of the two groups were quite different. Deaf children tackled significantly more test items than the hearing and made significantly more errors in achieving similar reading scores. A detailed examination of both correct and incorrect answers showed that the deaf children were not simply providing answers to questions at random. Even where they produced incorrect responses they tended, as a group, to select the same answer. Unlike the hearing group, who did not converge on the same incorrect solution to difficult test items, the deaf were systematic in their choices, indicating that they were using a consistent strategy. A post hoc examination of individual test items indicated that the deaf children were selecting answers on the basis of word associations in each test item. On some items these produced a correct response, on others the same (incorrect) response. The implications of these findings are discussed to argue that reading tests based on hearing norms are of little value in the assessment of reading abilities and reading problems in hearing-impaired children.     

A longitudinal study of deaf students’ use of an associational strategy on a reading comprehension test

The present investigation focused upon the use of a choice-dependent associational strategy by hearing-impaired students during a test of reading comprehension. An analysis of selected test items from the Stanford Achievement Test indicated that hearing-impaired students significantly favoured answers based upon association cues unrelated to the overall meaning of the preceding paragraph or stimulus sentence. The use of this strategy was highly stable over time; nearly seven of every ten students who used the strategy during an initial test administration reused the strategy a year later. Significant numbers of students also shifted away, after the year's interval, from the selection of correct answers or other incorrect distractor choices to the selection of the association-based answers. Finally, those students with the most profound hearing losses were even more likely to use and reuse the strategy, suggesting that hearing-impaired students are limited in those reading skills required for inferential processing and thus rely upon more concrete and comprehensible semantic cues.     

The Factors Related to Preschool Children and Their Mothers on Children’s Intuitional Mathematics Abilities

The aim of this study is to assess the factors that are related to preschool children and their mothers on children’s’ intuitional mathematics abilities. Results of the study showed that there were significant differences in children’s intuitional mathematics abilities when children are given the opportunity to think intuitionally and to make estimations, and when their mothers believe in the importance of providing such opportunities in the home setting. Children who tended to think fast and to examine details of objects had significantly higher scores. Also, the working mothers aimed to give opportunities to their children more often than non-working mothers. The mothers whose children received preschool education tended to give more opportunities to their children to think intuitionally and to make estimations. When incorrect intuitional answers or estimations were made by children, lower-educated mothers tended to scold their children much more than higher educated mothers. Mothers having at least a university degree explained more often to the children why they were in error than did the less-educated mothers.     

Exploring alternative conceptions from Newtonian dynamics and simple DC circuits: Links between item difficulty and item confidence

Croatian 1st‐year and 3rd‐year high‐school students (N = 170) completed a conceptual physics test. Students were evaluated with regard to two physics topics: Newtonian dynamics and simple DC circuits. Students answered test items and also indicated their confidence in each answer. Rasch analysis facilitated the calculation of three linear measures: (a) an item‐difficulty measure based upon all responses, (b) an item‐confidence measure based upon correct student answers, and (c) an item‐confidence measure based upon incorrect student answers. Comparisons were made with regard to item difficulty and item confidence. The results suggest that Newtonian dynamics is a topic with stronger students' alternative conceptions than the topic of DC circuits, which is characterized by much lower students' confidence on both correct and incorrect answers. A systematic and significant difference between mean student confidence on Newtonian dynamics and DC circuits items was found in both student groups. Findings suggest some steps for physics instruction in Croatia as well as areas of further research for those in science education interested in additional techniques of exploring alternative conceptions. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 43: 150–171, 2006     

How spatial abilities enhance,and are enhanced by,dental education

In two studies with a total of 324 participants, dentistry students were assessed on psychometric measures of spatial ability, reasoning ability, and on new measures of the ability to infer the appearance of a cross-section of a three-dimensional (3-D) object. We examined how these abilities and skills predict success in dental education programs, and whether dental education enhances an individual's spatial competence. The cross-section tests were correlated with spatial ability measures, even after controlling for reasoning ability, suggesting that they rely specifically on the ability to store and transform spatial representations. Sex differences in these measures indicated a male advantage, as is often found on measures of spatial ability. Spatial ability was somewhat predictive of performance in restorative dentistry practical laboratory classes, but not of learning anatomy in general. Comparisons of the performance of students early and late in their dental education indicated that dentistry students develop spatial mental models of the 3-D structure of teeth, which improves their ability to mentally maintain and manipulate representations of these specific structures, but there is no evidence that dental education improves spatial transformation abilities more generally.     

Examining relationships between academic motivation and personality among college students

Relationships between personality and academic motivation were examined using 451 first-year college students. Multiple regressions compared three types of intrinsic motivation, three types of extrinsic motivation and amotivation to five personality factors. Results indicated that those who were intrinsically motivated to attend college tended to be extroverted, agreeable, conscientious, and open to new experiences; although these trends varied depending on the specific type of intrinsic motivation. Those who were extrinsically motivated tended to be extroverted, agreeable, conscientious, and neurotic; depending on the type of extrinsic motivation. Those who lacked motivation tended to be disagreeable and careless. These results suggest that students with different personality characteristics have different reasons for pursuing college degrees and different academic priorities.     

The development of distrust

Preschool-age children's reasoning about the reliability of deceptive sources was investigated. Ninety 3- to 5-year-olds watched several trials in which an informant gave advice about the location of a hidden sticker. Informants were either helpers who were happy to give correct advice, or trickers who were happy to give incorrect advice. Three-year-olds tended to accept all advice from both helpers and trickers. Four-year-olds were more skeptical but showed no preference for advice from helpers over trickers, even though they differentiated between helpers and trickers on metacognitive measures. Five-year-olds systematically preferred advice from helpers. Selective trust was associated with children's ability to make mental state inferences.     

Conditional logic abilities on the four-card problem: Assessment of behavioral and reasoning performances

The present study assessed the behavioral and the reasoning performances of 507 school and university students on the four logical principles of logical detachment, particular conversion, particular inversion, and particular contraposition. An adapted version of Wason's four-card problem was administered to all students in paper-and-pencil format and in group settings. Students were asked to respond to the logical questions and to justify their answers. Nine logical reasoning categories were identified. The results of behavioral and reasoning performances were compared across grade levels. Results indicated that many students who responded behaviorally correctly to the logical questions, provided incorrect reasoning justifications. The percentages of students who considered a conditional statement as hypothetical increased with age. No sex differences on the behavioral and the reasoning performances were reported.     

Differences Between Attached and Detached Cadaveric Prosections on Students' Identification Ability During Practical Examinations

Cadaveric prosections are effective learning tools in anatomy education. They range from a fully dissected, sometimes plastinated, complete cadaver (in situ prosections), to a single, carefully dissected structure detached from a cadaver (ex situ prosections). While most research has focused on the advantages and disadvantages of dissection versus prosection, limited information is available on the instructional efficacy of different prosection types. This contribution explored potential differences between in situ and ex situ prosections regarding the ability of undergraduate students to identify anatomical structures. To determine if students were able to recognize the same anatomical structure on both in situ and ex situ prosections, or on either one individually, six structures were tagged on both prosection types as part of three course summative examinations. The majority of students (61%–68%) fell into one of the two categories: those that recognized or failed to recognize the same structure on both in situ and ex situ prosections. The percentage of students who recognized a selected structure on only one type of prosection was small (1.6%–31.6%), but skewed in favor of ex situ prosections (P ≤ 0.01). These results suggest that overall students' identification ability was due to knowledge differences, not the spatial or contextual challenges posed by each type of prosection. They also suggest that the relative difficulty of either prosection type depends on the nature of the anatomical structure. Thus, one type of prosection might be more appropriate for teaching some structures, and therefore the use of both types is recommended.     

Implementing individual and small group learning structures with a computer simulation

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of implementing individual and small group learning structures with a computer simulation in accounting. College students used one of three learning structures with the simulation: (a) an individual structure, (b) a small group structure with extensive interaction, or (c) a small group structure with occasional interaction. Results indicated that performance scores were high regardless of learning structure. However, students who worked alone expressed significantly more continuing motivation for their learning structure than students who worked with a partner. Responses to student interviews revealed somewhat mixed feelings for the small group structures. Observation data indicated that students who used the extensive small group structure exhibited significantly more discussion and provided more answers to their partners' questions than students who used the occasional group structure. Implications for implementing small group structures with computer-based instruction are provided.     

A NEW APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM OF CHANGING INITIAL RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

The hypothesis that it is unwise to change answers to multiple choice questions was tested using the technique of multiple regression analysis. The net number of correct answers as a result of changing responses was regressed against final grade in the course, numeric score on the exam, percent of total answers changed for all questions and for analytical questions, sex of the student, and scope of the exam.
The results show that there are gains to be made by changing responses. The variables which proved to be significant indicated that students who did well on the test changed a large percentage of answers, and that those who were taking a final exam tended to gain more. Final grades, sex of the student, and analytical questions had no significant impact on gains from changing responses. On the basis of the results gathered, the authors reject the hypothesis that changing responses is unwise.     

K-8 Teachers’ Overall and Gender-Specific Beliefs About Mathematical Aptitude

Teachers’ beliefs play a significant role in students’ academic attainment and career choices. Despite comparable attainment levels between genders, persistent stereotypes and beliefs that certain disciplines require innate ability and that men and women have different ability levels impede students’ academic career paths. In this study, we examined the prevalence of US mathematics teachers’ explicit general and gender-specific beliefs about mathematical ability and identified which teacher characteristics were associated with these beliefs. An analysis of data from 382 K-8 teachers in the USA indicated that overall, teachers disagreed with the idea that general and gender-specific mathematical ability is innate and agreed with the idea that hard work and dedication are required for success in mathematics. However, our findings indicate that those who believed mathematics requires brilliance also tended to think girls lacked this ability. We also found that teachers who were teaching mathematics to 11- to 14-year-old students seemed to believe that mathematics requires innate ability compared with teachers who were teaching mathematics to 5- to 10-year-old students. In addition, more experienced teachers and teachers who worked with special education students seemed to believe less in the role of hard work in success in mathematics, which could have serious consequences for shaping their students’ beliefs about their academic self-concept and future career-related decisions.

     

Using a Multidimensional Differential Item Functioning Framework to Determine if Reading Ability Affects Student Performance in Mathematics

Many teachers and curriculum specialists claim that the reading demand of many mathematics items is so great that students do not perform well on mathematics tests, even though they have a good understanding of mathematics. The purpose of this research was to test this claim empirically. This analysis was accomplished by considering examinees that differed in reading ability within the context of a multidimensional DIF framework. Results indicated that student performance on some mathematics items was influenced by their level of reading ability so that examinees with lower proficiency classifications in reading were less likely to obtain correct answers to these items. This finding suggests that incorrect proficiency classifications may have occurred for some examinees. However, it is argued that rather than eliminating these mathematics items from the test, which would seem to decrease the construct validity of the test, attempts should be made to control the confounding effect of reading that is measured by some of the mathematics items.     

Question types and wait-time during science related activities in Turkish preschools

The aim of the study is to investigate the types of questions that preschool teachers used during the science-related activities and preschool teachers’ behaviors in terms of wait-time. Through this study, the types of questions (lower level and higher level), the time that teachers allocate to their students to respond, and the teachers’ responses to the students’ answers were investigated. The study was conducted with six teachers working with six-year-old children in preschool institutions. In this qualitative study, the data were obtained through classroom observations. The findings of the study revealed that the teachers mostly asked lower level questions to the students and that they did not use the wait-time strategy effectively. Additionally, the findings showed that the teachers did not pay enough attention to the students’ responses. The teachers allowed students answer the questions as quickly as possible without encouraging them to think over their answers. Moreover, the teachers answered the questions themselves when the students did not give the correct answers. Finally, the teachers mostly dealt with the children actively participating much more than the other students who were less attentive.     

Structure sense: The relationship between algebraic and numerical contexts

Several researchers suggest that students' difficulties with the algebraic structure are in part due to their lack of understanding of structural notions in arithmetic. They assume that the algebraic system used by students inherits structural properties associated with the number system with which students are familiar. This study explored this assumption. In an attempt to discover whether wrong interpretations of the algebraic structure found in an algebraic context occur in a purely numerical one, we interviewed 53 sixth-graders individually. The assessment confirms the assumption: students' difficulties with the algebraic structure were found in purely numerical contexts. However, the study also confirms two, seemingly, contradictory observations. On the one hand, the students' interpretations of the structures of the expressions were very consistent; that is, the same tendencies were found in many students' answers. In this sense the students' behaviour was consistent. On the other hand, it was clearly observed that the same student may give an incorrect answer in one context and a correct answer in another. In this sense, it often seemed that the students were inconsistent.This revised version was published online in September 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Does formative feedback on search behaviour help students in answering comprehension questions from an available text? / ¿Ayuda la retroalimentación formativa sobre el comportamiento de búsqueda a contestar preguntas de comprensión en lecturas con texto disponible?

This study analyses the efficacy of formative feedback to boost students’ search behaviour when answering comprehension questions in a with-text reading situation, which is a common reading situation in instructional and assessment settings. In these reading situations search strategies play an important role to predict students’ performance. Sixty-five high school students read two texts and answered eight multiple-choice comprehension questions per text using the software Read&Answer, which recorded all the students’ actions. After answering each question, students received either global-search-feedback or specific-search-feedback, which differed in the specificity of their information, or no-feedback. Participants who received any feedback had a second chance to correct their wrong answers. Specific-search-feedback increased students’ search decisions and improved their use of relevant information to repair wrong answers over global-search-feedback. Consequently, specific-search-feedback improved students’ performance when they corrected wrong answers over global-search-feedback. These results have implications for the design and implementation of formative feedback in computer-based systems aimed at improving students’ performance and teaching reading literacy skills.     

Finding and using patterns in linear generalising problems

Linear generalising problems are questions which require students to observe and use a linear pattern of the formf(n)=an+b withb0. This study reports responses of students aged between 9 and 13 to these questions, documenting the mathematical models that they select, the strategies used in implementing them and the explanations they give. Substantial inconsistency of choice of model is observed; students who began a question correctly frequently adopted a simpler but incorrect model for more difficult parts of the question. Students who had undertaken a course in problem solving implicitly used a linear model more frequently and consistently and their explanations more often related the spatial patterns and the number patterns. They seemed to understand the relationship between the data and the generalising rule more completely.     

Enhancing Force Concept Inventory diagnostics to identify dominant misconceptions in first-year engineering physics

This work presents the results of a study whose aim is to detect systematic errors about the concept of force among freshmen students. The researchers analysed the results of the Force Concept Inventory test, which was administered to two different groups of students. The results show that, although there were significant performance variations between the two groups, they, nonetheless, shared common incorrect answers that were consistently triggered by the same misconceptions. The analysis proposed in this paper could also be applied in other universities to reveal the students’ a priori mindset in Newtonian mechanics and serve as a guideline for developing effective computer simulations or other tools.