Positive and negative intergroup contact and willingness to engage in intergroup interactions among majority (Han) and minority (Uyghur) group members in China: The moderating role of social dominance orientation

The present study investigated whether the associations of positive and negative intergroup contact with behavioral intentions (intentions to have contact with the outgroup in the future) are moderated by social dominance orientation (SDO), by considering the perspective of both majority and minority group members in China. Participants were 325 Han (majority) and 373 Uyghur (minority) members, who completed a self-report questionnaire. Results indicated that positive contact was associated with more positive behavioral intentions among high-SDO majority group members, whereas SDO did not moderate the association between positive contact and behavioral intentions among minority group members. In addition, negative contact was associated with lower behavioral intentions among high-SDO majority group members, and among low-SDO minority group members. This study suggests that attention should be placed simultaneously on positive and negative contact and on individual difference variables relevant to social ideologies, such as SDO.     

Bringing together acculturation theory and intergroup contact theory: Predictors of Flemings’ expectations of Turks’ acculturation behavior

The present paper explores Flemish majority members’ expectations concerning the acculturation of Turkish minorities. We studied two kinds of antecedents: majority members’ perceptions of Turkish minorities’ acculturation behavior and their experiences of intergroup contact. The possible mediating role of outgroup affect was also investigated. 247 Flemish high school students completed a survey. Data were analyzed using path analyses. Results show that positive contact experiences and perceiving that Turkish immigrants make efforts to engage in contact with the host group and/or to adopt the host culture are associated with less negative affective reactions towards Turkish migrants. Perceiving that Turkish immigrants maintain their heritage culture is associated with more negative affective reactions. Our results further revealed that increased negative affective reactions are associated with less support for culture maintenance and for contact with the host group but with a higher demand for host culture adoption. The present results also show that expectations of contact engagement and expectations of host culture adoption cannot be considered as equivalent. This implies that results from studies using Berry's conceptualization of acculturation expectations (Berry, 2001) and results from studies using Bourhis’ conceptualization of acculturation expectations (Bourhis, Moïse, Perreault, & Senécal, 1997) are not directly comparable. Our data also clearly disconfirm the orthogonal structure of the fourfold acculturation model for majority members’ acculturation expectations, suggesting that relying on the specific dimensions defining acculturation expectations may constitute a more valid approach to understand ongoing acculturation processes.     

The density of social networks moderates effects of intergroup contact

This study tests how the density of the social network in which intergroup contact takes place might affect the extent to which contact improves intergroup attitudes. Having contact with more outgroup members in dense social networks, in which everybody knows each other, may reinforce contact's positive effect. In this case, outgroup contact is shared with ingroup members, which suggests positive ingroup norms toward the outgroup. Alternatively, more contact in denser networks may improve intergroup attitudes less because density may increase subtyping or reduce the salience of ethnic group memberships. These competing hypotheses are tested among white American adults in a nonprobability online sample (N = 305) and in a representative national sample (N = 1270). In both studies, contact is associated with more positive attitudes toward racial outgroups but the positive contact effect is weakened if that contact takes place in a denser social network.     

Allport meets internet: A meta-analytical investigation of online intergroup contact and prejudice reduction

Since Allport’s optimal conditions for reducing prejudice by interpersonal contact were defined, numerous empirical studies have confirmed the efficacy of intergroup contact in reducing prejudice towards outgroups. Given that the Internet is changing the way people communicate and interact daily, it is very possible that the Web plays an important role in reducing prejudice. Assuming that the virtual environment fits Allport boundary conditions for effective contact that reduces prejudice, we undertook this meta-analysis. Our aim was to demonstrate that online intergroup contact is a successful means of improving intergroup relations. Results from 23 studies (20 journal articles and 3 unpublished records) showed that the effect is significant. Effect size was independent of the characteristics of samples, including their countries. There were stronger effects when the induced contact focused on cooperation but not for support of the interaction by an authority figure or the presence of common goals.     

Intergroup contact and the projection of positivity

Three studies investigated whether intergroup contact reduces prejudice, in part, via the extension of positive attributes that define the self to the outgroup. Study 1 found that positive intergroup contact predicted self-outgroup overlap, and this overlap mediated the contact–attitude relationship. This mediational path was specific to outgroup, but not ingroup, attitudes. In Study 2 we found that it was the attribution of specifically positive, as opposed to negative, traits that mediated the contact–attitude relationship in a model that also included intergroup anxiety. In Study 3 an elaborated model was supported, in which perceived self-other similarity mediated the effects of positive contact on the attribution of positive self-traits. We discuss the findings in the context of recent advances in Intergroup Contact Theory.     

How intergroup contact and communication about group differences predict collective action intentions among advantaged groups

Though greater intergroup contact has been shown to predict greater support for social change among advantaged group members, little is known about what occurs during the contact that may encourage members of advantaged groups to become willing to engage in collective action in solidarity with the disadvantaged. We argue that intergroup contact with disadvantaged group members may motivate advantaged group members’ willingness to engage in collective action through the mediating pathway of communication about group differences in power during contact. Two studies tested this proposition by examining how advantaged group members communicate about group differences with disadvantaged groups during contact in two distinct national contexts: White Americans in contact with Black Americans in the U.S. (Study 1) and Turks in contact with Kurds in Turkey (Study 2). In addition, Study 2 extended the research by specifying that it is communication about group differences in power—not communication about group differences in culture—that mediates the relation between advantaged group members’ contact with the disadvantaged and their willingness to engage in collective action in solidarity with the disadvantaged. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research on intergroup contact, along with highlighting the importance of communicating about power differences across group lines.     

Generalizing from negative contact: The causal sequence problem and proposed mechanisms of (negative) secondary transfer effects

The secondary transfer effect (STE) describes how contact with one outgroup (the so-called ‘primary outgroup’) can affect evaluations of another outgroup (the so-called ‘secondary outgroup’), that was uninvolved in the contact scenario. This research is about the transfer of negative contact. There are only few studies on the STE from negative contact available and even less longitudinal ones. We conducted such a longitudinal study, utilizing data from the GESIS-Panel, (N = 390; 3 survey waves). We investigated negative STE in an understudied intergroup context: forced migration. The primary outgroup was comprised of ‘foreigners’, living in Germany, the secondary outgroup were ‘refugees.’ We investigated three mechanisms by which negative STE might occur: firstly, contact might affect the primary outgroup attitude, which then affects the secondary outgroup attitude – a mechanism termed ‘attitude generalization.’ Secondly contact might be mediated by the general acceptance of diversity and thereby evaluations of outgroups associated with cultural diversity – a mechanism termed ‘multiculturalism.’ Lastly, contact might affect the perceived threat posed by the primary outgroup, and consequentially evaluations of secondary outgroups – a mechanism that we term ‘primary outgroup threat.’ Applying a cross-lagged panel mediation model, we investigated these theorized mechanisms. Negative STE emerged directly and also indirectly via ‘attitude generalization’ and ‘multiculturalism’ – findings congruent with previous cross-sectional research. Contrary to previous research no indirect effect via ‘primary outgroup threat’ emerged. Our results provide additional empirical evidence for negative STE. They further indicate that negative- and positive STE might operate via similar mechanisms.     

Revisiting the contact hypothesis: Effects of different modes of computer-mediated communication on intergroup relationships

This study applies the contact hypothesis to computer-mediated communication (CMC) and examines whether intergroup computer-mediated contact can facilitate relationships between conflicting groups. The effectiveness of different CMC modes, text-based and video-based, in improving interpersonal and intergroup attitudes was compared. The results from an experiment indicated that video-based CMC exerted greater influence in improving participants’ attitudes towards a targeted outgroup member when compared to text-based CMC. However, text-based CMC produced a stronger effect than video-based CMC in improving one’s attitudes towards the outgroup as a whole.     

Patterns of intergroup attitudes in South Africa after 1994

In the heterogeneous South African society, race has become not only the major organizing principle, but also the primary unit of social analysis. The concept “intergroup relations” has consequently predominantly been associated with racial relations and “intergroup attitudes” with “interracial attitudes”. Interest in South African race relations has furthermore been enhanced by the tumultuous struggle against apartheid. A substantive body of research acquired during apartheid indeed points to interracial tension. The advent of a new political dispensation in 1994 has been accompanied with expectations that increased intergroup contact, in particular, would result in improved interracial relations. The current study investigates intergroup attitudes after 1994. Three countrywide surveys were conducted in 1998, 2001 and 2009 using representative samples of all major racial groups. The results indicate that overall attitudes were more positive among more affluent and urbanized communities. However, there are indications of prevailing negative relations, in particular between Blacks and Afrikaans-speaking Whites. While the attitudes of Afrikaans-speaking Whites seem to have become more positive, that has not been the case to the same extent for Blacks. Blacks also appear to be less positive towards English-speaking Whites than during apartheid. Overall, the results point to more positive intergroup attitudes in some instances, but also to potential emerging points of tension.     

Working with emotion in educational intergroup dialogue

As a form of multicultural education, intergroup dialogue is one method to improve intergroup relations. Furthermore, this form of experiential education inevitably elicits emotional responses to diversity and social justice issues. The theory and research, however, supporting its pedagogy lack a comprehensive framework for working with emotion. Recent empirical and theoretical work on emotion in intergroup interaction gives us some guidance in conceptualizing the centrality and complexity of emotional content and processes in intergroup contact. Additionally, ample evidence exists for the primacy of affect in the regulation of social relationships from the parent–child dyad to intergroup interactions. Most empirical work on affect in intergroup relations primarily focuses on assessing reactions to imagined or actual, one-time laboratory encounters and examines the reactions of only dominant group members. In contrast to experimental work, intergroup dialogue involves complex dynamics within the context of structured, sustained, face-to-face conversation among real people of dominant and subordinate social identity groups. Recommendations to improve intergroup contact include intervention at the level of emotion. Although it does not focus systematically on the affective layer, intergroup dialogues’ philosophy and structure prime the ground to do so. This paper proposes a set of principles to work with emotion in intergroup dialogue that would provide ways (1) to foster overall positive intergroup contact, (2) to work effectively with negative affect and resistance as integral and not subversive to positive intergroup interactions, (3) to attend to the force that ambivalence exerts on intergroup interaction, and (4) to work with facilitators’ affective processes. Implications for research are also discussed.     

The role of positive and negative contact of migrants with native people in affecting their future interactions. Evidence from Italy and Turkey

This research investigates the relationship between different valence contact of migrants with native people and their motivation to avoid further interactions with the majority group, as a preventing factor of adaptation by either side. Specifically, the joint and differential effects of positive and negative contact of migrants with natives on outgroup avoidance were addressed by examining also the mediating role of affective variables such as stereotype threat, symbolic threat and anxiety. Hypotheses were tested on two samples of African immigrants in Italy and Syrian immigrants in Turkey. Positive contact was not associated with outgroup avoidance and anxiety among African respondents who reported higher negative contact with natives. This evidence was not found among Syrian immigrants. In both samples, however, the moderating role of negative contact was found on stereotype threat. Across the two samples, anxiety was the strongest mediator of the relationship between negative contact of migrants on their avoidance of the majority group. Overall, the evidence we gathered furthers knowledge of the impact of negative intergroup contact on preventing migrant social integration.     

Contact with a multicultural past: A prejudice-reducing intervention

This paper introduces the notion of contact with a multicultural past as a new type of indirect intergroup contact. It presents results of a study which evaluated the effects of an educational program utilizing the proposed framework. The program aimed to facilitate the engagement of Polish students (N = 427) with historical Jewish heritage in their places of residence. The intervention proved highly successful at increasing students' knowledge of and interest in local history which both contributed independently to an increased inclusion of the outgroup (Jews) in the self and in turn to more positive attitudes towards them. The implications of using contact with a multicultural past in societies with low levels of direct intergroup contact are discussed.     

Internal migration and the negative attitudes toward migrant workers in China

We examined the relationship between perceived group threats and citizens’ negative outgroup attitudes toward migrant workers using nationally representative survey data (N = 1219) collected from 13 cities across seven Chinese provinces. Additionally, we examined the relationship between intergroup contact and citizens’ negative outgroup attitudes toward migrant workers and assessed whether these relationships varied by cultural region and stereotypes. The results showed that perceived group threat was associated with citizens’ negative outgroup attitudes toward migrant workers. However, the strength of their relationships decreased significantly in southern cities. The results also showed that contact with migrant workers in general and in the workplace were negatively related to citizens’ negative outgroup attitudes toward them. However, it was noted that contact with migrant workers in general would be less effective when implemented in cities, where citizens hold more negative stereotypes toward migrant workers. The findings suggest that negative outgroup attitudes also exist in internal migration, especially in places with high individualism. Intergroup contact, especially contact in the workplace, is an effective strategy for enhancing group integration.     

Choose your (international) contacts wisely: A multilevel analysis on the impact of intergroup contact while living abroad

A two year longitudinal study examined the influence of social contact abroad on student sojourners’ cultural adjustment and intergroup affect. Social contact was measured with regard to the three people that sojourners (exchange students) spent most time with. Both the quality of the relationship with each contact and the cultural background (host national, co-national) of each contact were measured, that is contact quality and contact source, respectively. The data were analysed through repeated measures multilevel modelling. Results indicate that good quality contact (independent of source) is associated with higher cultural adjustment in sojourners and lower levels of stress. Contact quality however, was not associated with intergroup affect. Source of contact was found to matter, especially over time. Specifically, in the later stages of the sojourn, having more co-national contacts among ones three most frequent contacts, was associated with higher levels of stress, reduced cultural adjustment and higher secondary outgroup derogation. These findings suggest that who sojourners have contact with, matters for both cultural adjustment and intergroup affect.     

Development of an intergroup anxiety toward Muslims scale

Understanding intergroup relations and the anxiety that can result has become increasingly relevant to interactions between Muslim and non-Muslim individuals due to current tensions between Islamic extremist groups and many Western nations. The anticipated increase in migration from countries with large Islamic populations to Western countries will undoubtedly lead to increased contact between these groups. Currently, there are no measures of intergroup anxiety elicited when interacting specifically with Muslims. Thus, the goal of the current studies was to fill this gap by developing a measure of intergroup anxiety toward Muslims. Across 3 studies, the reliability and validity of a new measure of intergroup anxiety toward Muslims was assessed. An exploratory factor analysis (Study 1) identified 11 reliable items that were supported by confirmatory factor analysis (Study 2). Across all 3 studies, the scale demonstrated good convergent validity, such that participants who reported higher levels of intergroup anxiety toward Muslims also reported more negative attitudes toward Muslims and greater general intergroup anxiety than individuals with lower intergroup anxiety toward Muslims. Assessment of discriminant validity showed that the scale differentiated between attitudes toward Muslims and other out-groups, as well as general anxiety and depression. The Intergroup Anxiety toward Muslims Scale was also reliable across different samples (i.e., college students and community members) and methods of data collection (i.e., online and in person).     

Seeing the human in everyone: Multicultural experiences predict more positive intergroup attitudes and humanitarian helping through identification with all humanity

Prior research suggests two components of multicultural experiences—contact with cultural members and experiences with cultural elements—predict less prejudice via stronger identification with all humanity (IWAH). However, only one factor of IWAH (bond) was tested, and only United States samples were used. The present research examined both factors of IWAH (bond with, and concern for, all humanity) and used a nationally representative sample from Poland (N = 974), a more ethnically homogeneous and collectivist culture. We explored the association between multicultural experiences and negative intergroup attitudes (measured via fear of refugees, Islamophobia, and ethnocentrism) and humanitarian helping, and also tested the mediating role of both factors of IWAH on these attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Results largely replicate and extend prior findings, revealing contact with cultural members directly predicted stronger bond with and concern for all humanity, and less negative intergroup attitudes toward “others” (but not humanitarian helping). In contrast, experiences with cultural elements directly predicted stronger concern for all humanity (but not bond) and greater humanitarian helping (but not intergroup attitudes). Bond with all humanity mediated the association between contact with cultural members and less negative intergroup attitudes, while concern for all humanity mediated the association between both components of multicultural experiences and greater humanitarian helping. Findings support the benefits of multicultural experiences and their association with stronger IWAH and more positive intergroup outcomes beyond the United States, and also indicate unique roles for the IWAH bond and concern factors. Cultural differences, limitations, and future directions are discussed.     

Socio-structural intergroup characteristics and group-based emotions in three countries

Participants from three countries (United States, India, and Bulgaria) rated the socio-structural context between their nation and China. We explored the relationship between the components of the intergroup context (permeability, stability, and legitimacy) and five group-based emotions (happiness, fear, contempt, jealousy, and disgust) across these three international relationships. Overall, the results showed that socio-structural intergroup characteristics interact to differentially influence the intensity of reported group-based emotions. The intensity and predictors of each group-based emotion were also found to differ for each country. Together, these results show that simultaneously examining different socio-structural variables yields a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between the intergroup context and the emotions derived from group membership.     

When imagining intergroup contact mobilizes collective action: The perspective of disadvantaged and advantaged groups

The current studies aimed to reveal the potential role of imagined intergroup contact on collective action tendencies within a context of intergroup conflict. Study 1 (disadvantaged Kurds, N = 80) showed that imagined contact increased collective action tendencies and this effect was mediated by increased perceived discrimination and ethnic identification. Study 2 (advantaged Turks, N = 127) demonstrated that imagined contact also directly increased collective action tendencies, as well as perceived discrimination and relative deprivation among the advantaged group. No significant mediation emerged. At the same time, in line with literature, imagined contact led only the advantaged group members to display more positive outgroup attitudes. Findings suggest that in settings where ingroup identities and conflict are salient, imagined contact may not readily undermine motivation for social change among group members.     

Intergroup contact and prejudice toward immigrants: A multinational,multilevel test of the moderating role of individual conservative values and cultural embeddedness

We performed a multilevel, multinational analysis of the 2014 European Social Survey dataset (N = 33,597, nested in 19 countries) to study how individual conservative values and cultural embeddedness moderate the link between contact with immigrants and the attitudes toward them. A combination of frequency and positivity of contact with immigrants showed a negative association with ethnic prejudice while, conversely, participants’ conservative basic values were directly and positively associated with prejudice. National cultural embeddedness was not associated with the dependent variable. Neither individual conservative values nor cultural embeddedness moderated the association between contact and prejudice. Strengths, limitations, implications and future directions of this study are discussed.