Evaluating the effects of cultural immersion on counselor trainees' multicultural development and intercultural competence: A metasynthesis of qualitative evidence

This metasynthesis critically surveyed and evaluated the learning impacts on counselor and psychology trainees’ multicultural development and intercultural competence through participating in cultural immersion (CI), based on published qualitative research evidence. Accordingly, this metasynthesis identified and assessed the characteristics, the methodological strengths and qualities, and the thematic findings of 33 qualitative and mixed-methods CI studies resulting from exhaustive database searches. Using a directed content analysis technique, a six-domain analytical framework was applied to code and analyze the themes reported in these studies. The results point to CI intervention as a multifaceted and versatile instructional apparatus that impacted and contributed to trainees’ multicultural development and intercultural learning multidimensionally, across cognitive, perceptual-attitudinal, affective, and skills-behavioral domains. These learning outcomes include trainees’ increased cultural awareness and knowledge (cognitive), enhanced reflexivity on their worldview, positionality, and attitude (perceptual-attitudinal), heightened emotion and growth in cultural empathy (affective), adaptation and display of new behaviors and relational skills and increased multicultural competence (skills-behavioral). Therefore, CI embodies many favorable characteristics of experientially-based learning as stipulated in the existing multicultural counseling and intercultural training literature. These findings lend nuanced empirical support for the application of CI to facilitate counselor trainees’ multicultural orientation, development, and skills, and offer insights into structural facilitators for enhancing immersion training. However, a lack of structural and methodological consistency and theoretical depth among the existing CI studies were observed as major limitations. Implications and recommendations for advancing future CI and multicultural training practice and research are discussed.     

The effect of study abroad and personality on cultural intelligence: A deeper understanding using the expanded model of cultural intelligence

Using an expanded assessment of cultural intelligence (CQ), this study provides a detailed analysis of how studying abroad impacts the development of CQ. We examined (1) the effect of a study abroad semester on the development of each of the eleven subdimensions of cultural intelligence – Expanded-CQ or E-CQ over time; and (2) whether personality traits (i.e., extraversion and openness to experience) had a moderating role in the relationship between a study abroad semester and E-CQ in a longitudinal study. Data were collected from 361 students both before (Time 1) and after (Time 2) the study abroad semester. Mixed between-within subjects analysis of variance showed that the study abroad semester did have a statistically significant effect on the development of ten subdimensions of E-CQ over time. Moreover, contrary to our expectations, multiple regression analyses demonstrated that individuals who were low on extraversion improved their metacognitive CQ (awareness) more than did individuals who were high on extraversion. Similarly, individuals who were low on openness to experience improved their metacognitive CQ (awareness), their cognitive CQ (culture-general knowledge), and their motivational CQ (intrinsic interest) more than did individuals who were high on openness to experience. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.     

Multiculturalism and innovative work behavior: The mediating role of cultural intelligence

Innovative work behavior is a key organizational competence. Informed by a framework for describing the role of cultural competences as an antecedent for international business performance this study seeks to explicate the connection between individual multiculturalism and innovative work behaviors, with cultural intelligence as a mediating variable. The empirical tests, using a culturally diverse sample of 157 employees of a large, international, Dutch-based staffing agency, reveal that cultural intelligence fully mediates the effect of multiculturalism on innovative work behaviors. The mediation appears robust to various individual and departmental characteristics. These outcomes have implications for the selection and development of employees in innovative organizations and for innovation and international business research.     

The role of intercultural competence,in the relationship between intercultural experiences and creativity among students

We studied the interplay of intercultural competence, intercultural experiences, and creativity among Russian students from Moscow (N = 272). We expected the students from culturally diverse groups, attending the courses on cultural issues, to be more creative. We based our expectation on the idea that cultural diversity and cultural learning are associated with a higher level of intercultural competence that might contribute to students’ creativity. We measured the intercultural experiences by cultural diversity of study groups (a number of foreign students in the groups and the intensity of friendly contacts with them) and by cultural learning (a number of culture-related courses that students attended). We measured creativity by the “Many Instances Game” from the Runco Creativity Assessment Battery (rCAB). We measured intercultural competence by the adapted scale of Fantini and Tirmizi. We discovered positive associations of intercultural experiences in the university with students’ creativity. Such components of intercultural competence as attitudes and skills (the adaptability of behavior), played an important role in the students’ creativity. The attitudes were positive and the skills were negative, related to the creativity. We also revealed that these two components of intercultural competence mediated the relationship between the intercultural experiences and creativity of students. Based on the results, we discussed the factors of the educational environment which may enhance or prohibit creativity.     

Short form measure of cultural intelligence: A Portuguese validation

More and more workplaces need employees who can work effectively with people of diverse cultural contexts. Cultural intelligence is a core social ability to interact successfully in cross-cultural environments. The Short Form measure of Cultural Intelligence (SFCQ) has been validated in several countries, although not for Portuguese-speaking countries. This paper describes the findings of three studies conceived to validate the SFCQ in the Portuguese language. The first study supports the SFCQ scale as unidimensional with three intermediate facets and possessing adequate internal consistency in a sample of college students (N = 217). In favor of construct validity, the instrument is weakly associated with but dissimilar to ethnocentrism and personality and is positively related to various markers of multicultural experience. Regarding criterion-validity, the SFCQ is related, as expected, to sociocultural adaptation and having a close friend from another culture. The second study supports the construct validity and the concurrent validity of the Portuguese SFCQ scale using a different sample of national college students (N = 195). The final study (N = 181) also supported the construct, the convergent, and the criterion-related validities of the Portuguese SFCQ scale in a sample of international students. It merits noting that in these three studies cultural intelligence emerged as a second-order single factor with three first-order factors, in particular, cultural knowledge, cultural skills, and cultural metacognition. These results substantiate the validity of the SFCQ and demonstrate this Portuguese version as a tool with substantial evidence for easily assessing cultural intelligence.     

Proactive personality and cross-cultural adjustment: Roles of social media usage and cultural intelligence

Proactive personality has been theoretically defined as a natural disposition that determines the manner in which an individual responds to social environmental changes. However, in cross-cultural context, knowledge about the role of proactive personality and its boundary conditions in expatriate cross-cultural adjustment remains limited. To address the gaps, this study aims to investigate whether and how proactive personality accounts for variance phenomena in expatriate cross-cultural adjustment with intervention of boundary conditions. A survey was conducted in three public universities in China, and 247 informative responses were obtained for hypothesis testing analysis. Results reveal that proactive personality contributes to expatriate cross-cultural adjustment. This contribution occurs through the conduit of cultural intelligence (CQ). CQ partially mediates the relationship between proactive personality and academic adjustment but fully mediates that between proactive personality and social adjustment. Moreover, social media usage for gathering information negatively influences the relationship between proactive personality and CQ. Implications and future research directions are discussed as well.     

Intercultural competence in tourism and hospitality: Self-efficacy beliefs and the Dunning Kruger effect

This study aims to measure intercultural competence (awareness) of tourism and hospitality employees who tend to be in continuous interaction with intercultural customers. By comparing the results of a self-report awareness test/scale with the results of a knowledge-based test, the study shows that employees not only have extremely low intercultural competence, they also exaggerate their intercultural awareness/competence. Hence, in addition to the implications for intercultural competence/awareness of tourism and hospitality employees and for the businesses for which they work, the study has also implications regarding the measurement ability of self-report scales/tests.     

Measuring intercultural contact and its effects on intercultural competence: A structural equation modeling approach

This study utilizes a structural equation modeling approach to construct a scale to measure Chinese college students’ intercultural contact and to explore the pathways from intercultural contact to intercultural competence and their significance. Through exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis, the study conducted a series of reliability and validity analyses. The results indicate that the intercultural contact scale for Chinese college students has good reliability and validity. Moreover, a path analysis with the structural equation model was performed and reveals that the pathways of intercultural contact are beneficial for improving Chinese college students’ intercultural competence. In terms of direct contact, domestic social media is the most important, whereas for indirect contact, cultural products are relatively more important than multimedia and courses. The implications for the theoretical development of intercultural contact could be significant for scholars engaged in intercultural communication as well as for planning international education training programs.     

Exploring resilience as a mediator and moderator in the relationship between cultural intelligence and sociocultural adjustment: A study of expatriates in Switzerland

Recent studies suggest that cultural intelligence (CQ) and resilience play a key role in sociocultural adjustment in expatriate populations. The current study aimed to clarify the relationships between CQ, resilience and sociocultural adjustment in a population of expatriates in Switzerland. Participants (N = 126) completed validated, self-report measures of resilience, cultural intelligence, and sociocultural adjustment and hierarchical linear regression, mediation and moderation analyses tested relationships between the study variables. Preliminary results verified findings from previous research indicating that increased resilience and CQ predict fewer sociocultural adjustment difficulties. Additional analyses showed that the CQ Skills subscale explained a significant amount of variance in sociocultural adjustment while the other subscales, metacognition and knowledge, did not. Finally, we found that resilience partially mediates the relationship between CQ and sociocultural adjustment but does not act as a moderator in this relationship. The results have theoretical implications for understanding the process of sociocultural adjustment, as well as practical implications for implementing targeted training programmes to support expatriate adjustment.     

Learning styles and their impact on cross-cultural training: An international comparison in France, Germany and Quebec

Every person has his or her own individual way to learn and to solve problems in day-to-day situations. These personal cognitive strategies, acquired in a long socialization process are called “learning styles” and may differ depending on gender, age or culture.In this study, the learning styles of over 300 students in business administration in France, Germany and Quebec are examined with the Learning Style Inventory (LSI). Representative and significant learning differences where found. This is why the LSI can be used in a first step for the illustration and comparison of typical patterns of learning. In a second step the results may be of use to international trainers in making decisions about course design and methods of cross-cultural training in relation to the learning profiles of the participants.     

The mediating role of transformational leadership in the relationship between cultural intelligence and employee voice behavior: A case of hotel employees

This study, for the first time, evaluates the mediating effect of transformational leadership in the relationship between cultural intelligence and voice behavior. Data were collected from 316 non-national employees from various hotels in Thailand. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The results show that non-national employees with a higher level of cultural intelligence are more likely to display voice behaviors. Furthermore, this relationship is partially mediated by transformational leadership. This study offers a unique perspective by presenting cultural intelligence as a personal antecedent of voice behavior and by identifying the underlying mediation mechanism that affects this relationship. This investigation has important implications to manage and lead multicultural organizations, especially to promote voice behavior.     

Does Cross-cultural Competence Matter when Going Global: Cultural Intelligence and Its Impact on Performance of International Students in Australia

Cultural Intelligence (CQ) is a critical competency in the modern world. By examining 189 international students from an Australian university, this study investigates the impact of CQ and cultural exposure on intercultural adjustment and academic performance. Significant positive relationships are found between facets of CQ and Interactional Adjustment and General Adjustment, but a significant negative relationship with Academic Performance. We also demonstrate the validity of a new construct of Cultural Exposure (CE) including three dimensions (Geographical, Environmental, and Inherited) with both Geographical and Environmental dimensions producing a strong positive correlation with Academic Performance.     

Learning and adaptation with regard to complementary medicine in a foreign context: Intercultural experiences of medical students from different cultural backgrounds

Little is known about challenges and transition that medical students from different cultural backgrounds face with regard to complementary medicine (CM). This paper explores such students’ experiences and perspectives of socio-cultural and academic difference with regard to CM and experiences of intercultural relations. Using a constructivist grounded theory approach, 30 in-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with medical students across 10 Australian medical schools. The data were rigorously analysed through a systematic process of coding, categorisation and theoretical development. The findings indicate that students adapted considerably to the host culture. Students with Western backgrounds integrated better socio-culturally and academically compared to students with non-Western backgrounds. Although nationality represented cultural identity, students’ construction of cultural difference was informed by their perception of diverging value systems within the specific educational environment. These values were, in turn, reflected in students’ reported behaviours, attitudes, and levels of engagement in socio-cultural and academic aspects of university life. Adaptation employed by students was evidenced largely due to their conflicting sense of responsibility towards familial culture regarding CM and focus on fitting in. While students’ tendency to gravitate towards cultural peers was evident, most students adapted to their host environment regarding CM to fit into normal intercultural encounters during medical school. In conclusion, students’ intercultural contact with regard to CM was both complex and problematic. At a time of significant diversification within the higher education student body, this paper highlights the role medical education institutions can play in fostering intercultural and academic guidance and support.     

The relationship between cultural intelligence and performance with the mediating effect of culture shock: A case from Philippine laborers in Taiwan

This purpose of the present study was to explore the role of cultural intelligence (CQ) and its effect on performance of foreign laborers. We also examined the mediating effect of culture shock on the relationship between CQ and performance. Data were collected from Philippine laborers working in Taiwan. A paper-based survey, with a return rate of 76.4%, was completed by 382 Philippine laborers working in Taiwan's manufacturing industries. The results showed that CQ was positively related to the performance of Philippine laborers and negatively related to culture shock. In addition, we found that culture shock partly mediated the relationship of CQ and performance. These findings suggested that CQ can serve as a predictor for cross-cultural effectiveness. Implications for practice and direction for future research are offered.     

Influences of Culture on Self-Disclosure as Relationally Situated in Intercultural and Interracial Friendships from a Social Penetration Perspective

Intercultural and interracial relationships face barriers, tensions, and challenges that are absent from intracultural and intraracial relationships. These challenges provide the impetus for this study to examine the influences of individualism-collectivism and relational intimacy on topics and dimensions of self-disclosure in intercultural/interracial friendships from a social penetration perspective. A total of 252 participants responded to the instruments measuring the constructs of interest. This study found: (1) relational intimacy was positively correlated with all six topics and four out of the five dimensions of self-disclosure; (2) individualism was a significant predictor of the five dimensions of self-disclosure as a set; and (3) one mirrors one's intercultural/interracial friend in all six topics and the positive/negative dimension of self-disclosure. These results suggest that relational intimacy has a greater impact on close intercultural and interracial friendships than cultural variability.     

Workplace and school microaggressions on anxiety symptoms: The role of cultural values among Hispanic Americans

ObjectivesThis study examined the main and interaction effects of the workplace and school microaggressions and cultural values of cultural pride, familismo, espiritismo, and simpatia on anxiety symptoms among Hispanic Americans.Design266 U.S. Hispanic American college students participated in this cross-sectional survey research. Of the 266 participants, 68% identified as cisgender women; 87% reported English mastery. The reported mean age was 19.92 (SD = 3.07).ResultsTo test whether cultural values moderated the relationship between workplace and school microaggression on anxiety symptoms, we conducted separate interaction models for each interaction term. Findings showed that overall, cultural values and specific values of cultural pride and espiritismo moderated the relationship between workplace and school microaggression on anxiety symptoms. Specifically, the positive relationship between workplace and school microaggression and anxiety symptoms was most robust for Hispanic Americans endorsing greater cultural values and specific values of cultural pride and espiritismo.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that Hispanic Americans who closely associate with these cultural values may be more conscious of being othered and marginalized by these microaggressions, which may lead to higher reports of anxiety symptoms. Taken together, our findings suggest that these cultural values may serve as a risk or protective factor in the relationship between workplace and school microaggressions and anxiety symptoms and has implications for vocational interventions.     

The mediating effect of sociocultural adaptation and cultural intelligence on citizens and migrants: Impact on perceptions of country images

Reports indicate that international migration patterns will continue to grow between 50 and 60 million per decade. Consequently, people’s perceptions of a country’s image will evolve. Country image is an important phenomenon affecting organizations and people’s decisions to travel, invest, study, migrate, and many more. Hence, this study aims to examine the influence of global and local identity on citizens’ and migrants’ perceptions of their countries’ images. In addition, the paper investigates the mediating effect of lower sociocultural adaptation and cultural intelligence on a country’s image. Our sample is drawn from Indonesians and Australians who completed survey questionnaires in the two countries. The sample comprises citizens and migrants (n = 1188) from Australia and Indonesia. The results show local and global identity differences in how individuals perceive other countries. For Indonesians, local identity makes people perceive Australia more positively. In contrast, for Australians, global identity makes people perceive Indonesia more negatively. Furthermore, the results indicate the importance of cultural intelligence over sociocultural adaptation. This paper will make several theoretical and managerial contributions. First, the paper contributes to cultural and identity literature. Individuals’ perceptions of a country are influenced by their identity and values. Second, this study shows the importance of sociocultural adaptation and cultural intelligence. Mere identity (global or local) is insufficient to justify the relationship between identity and perception of a country.     

Beyond cultural differences: The sociopolitical impact on supervision between Arab supervisees and Jewish supervisors in Israel

Little attention has been given to the cultural and political aspects of the supervisory relationship between Arab Palestinian supervisees and Jewish Israeli supervisors in medical psychology in Israel. This paper presents a focus group of five interns and certified medical psychologists of Arab Palestinian origin who describe their experiences and relationships with their Jewish supervisors. Constant comparison analysis revealed three main themes: fusion between professional and national identities, gaps that go beyond the cultural differences, and a sense of alienation and isolation in the supervision setting. The findings indicate the inevitable presence of the political conflict in the supervision relationship and correspond with findings for other professions such as social work. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed and practical recommendations for supervisors are offered.     

The effects of a systematic training program on the attitudes and behaviors of white people

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the impact of a systematic step-by-step curricular-affective program of race relations training on the attitudes and behaviors of white people. Two attitude scales, the Attitude Exploration Survey and the Steckler Attitude Inventory, are used to assess changes in attitudes. A Behavioral Rating Scale is used by participants and their significant others to assess change in behavior in relations to their behavioral objective. The results indicate that both attitudes and behavior are changed as a result of the training program and that the change is retained eight weeks after completion of the program.     

The effects of evaluation conditions on “continuing motivation” study of the cultural,personological and situational antecedents of a motivational pattern

This study compares the effects of three different evaluation conditions on the “continuing motivation” of grade school students in Iran and the U.S. In both cultural groups, the highest continuing motivation was shown by students in a self-evaluation condition followed, in order, by students in the peer comparison and teacher evaluation conditions. While the generalizability of evaluation effects is perhaps the most striking finding, it may he noted that these effects were to some extent modified by individual differences in achieving orientation and sex role. Also of interest were the effects of performance level on continuing motivation, In this case, higher levels of performance on the task were generally followed by greater continuing motivation. The theoretical implications of this and other findings were discussed in terms of Current achievement theory.