Creativity as a pastoral concern

In this paper, the author considers the contribution of creativity to pastoral care in education. Since its advent in English schools in the early 1970s, pastoral care has placed the affective realm and individual enrichment centre stage in both its curriculum aims and teaching approaches. These principles have, however, had much to contend with over the past 50 years; from the obtrusive effects of state intervention in schools, to the challenges confronting young people growing up in increasingly complex societies. For many teachers and practitioners, engaging young people in creative pursuits has come to be regarded as a necessary counterpoint to increasingly performative school cultures and an essential means to enabling vibrant forms of positive self-expression. The power of creative activities has received new impetus as a pastoral concern in light of two national trends. The first as creative arts provision in the curriculum in English state secondary schools declines as a consequence of Government qualification reforms, and second as an increasing number of young people are referred to Alternative Educational Provision with mental health issues. As a consequence, many pastoral educators have turned or, indeed, returned to creativity and creative practices as a primary means of supporting and enriching the lives of young people, particularly for those who now struggle in contemporary school environments. In light of these developments and drawing on research and practice in the field of creativity and pastoral care, this paper aims to cast further light on creativity in pastoral education.     

Feminism and ‘the schooling scandal’

In this paper I outline an approach towards policy analysis that takes governmentality as its point of theoretical orientation and begin to apply this approach to my research into the recently raised compulsory school‐leaving age in Western Australia. I aim to demonstrate the methodological potentials of this approach by giving examples of the thinking and practices that shape and condition the policy. I commence by situating the school‐leaving age policy within a broader field of reforms occurring under the general banner of neoliberalism and argue that the policy is primarily concerned with the conduct of students classified at ‘educational risk’, and with transforming these students to become more visible, participative and engaged in their schooling. By focusing on the policy rationalities and technologies, and drawing on Foucault’s notion of governmentality, I explore the forms of knowledge and practical strategies that are deployed in this policy field. I contend that this particular deployment narrowly constructs young people’s experiences of schooling in ways that do not allow for a broader debate about their declining school attendance and what should be done to address it     

Conceptualising the compulsory education policy apparatus: producing and reproducing risky subjectivities

A governmental research inquiry was conducted into the policy to raise the school leaving age in Western Australia. The study aimed to problematise the policy so as to identify and examine the rationale and intervening practices with young people who were deemed to be at-risk of not meeting the new school leaving age requirements. Drawing on interviews and policy documents, this paper elaborates the concept of ‘apparatus’ as defined by Foucault and Agamben to identify the contexts and consequences of the way the policy produced and reproduced an ‘at-risk’ youth subjectivity. The paper shows how a binary between school completers and non-completers emanated from a context about a crisis in falling retention and early school leaving, myopically focusing on NEET (Not in Employment, Education or Training) subjectivities as both the cause and solution to the policy objectives. Consequently, the policy apparatus is productive of the very circumstances it seeks to address, and therefore it recursively cycles around a problem it does not solve.     

Gendered divisions on classed routes to vocational education

In this article our focus is on the persistent gendered divisions in educational routes of young people who choose a vocational path after compulsory education in Finland. We analyse how gendered subjectivities are constructed within the practices of educational and vocational guidance and within student cultures in the comprehensive school, as well as the way in which young people process understandings of themselves and their expectations during and after vocational education. In addition, we explore young people's ways to negotiate with disciplinary practices of the educational system. The paper draws on three ethnographic studies, and on feminist post-structural and materialist theories, intertwined with contextualised ethnographic perspectives. Our analysis reveals some patterns that might work as obstacles in the process towards reducing gender segregation in education and the labour market. We suggest that whilst gendered choices are sometimes taken for granted, gender dichotomy is often emphasised even if young people choose ‘differently’.     

Continuing educational participation among children in care in five countries: some issues of social class

Young people who have spent all or part of their childhoods in public care are at particular risk of social exclusion as adults and yet the pathway out of exclusion identified by policy-makers at both European and national levels, namely, education, is very difficult to access. Using data from a five-country study of the post-compulsory educational pathways of young people in public care, this paper examines the rates of participation of young people in further and higher education and considers what might account for the gap, looking at two factors: the impact of background social class on educational support and the educational intentions and practices of the care system. The paper concludes by considering the policy context and some possible tensions between policy aims and young people’s contexts and experiences.     

What happens to pupils permanently excluded from special schools and pupil referral units in England?

There is widespread consensus in the research and policy‐related literature over the last decade that young people who have been permanently excluded from school are at a far greater risk of a variety of negative outcomes than young people who have not had this experience. These negative outcomes include prolonged periods out of education and/or employment; poor mental and physical health; involvement in crime; and homelessness. This article presents evidence from a small‐scale qualitative study of destinations and outcomes post‐exclusion for a group of young people considered to be at particular risk of such negative outcomes: namely, those who have been permanently excluded from special schools or Pupil Referral Units (now known as short‐stay schools). The specific focus of this paper is on the 24 young people's educational trajectories pre‐ and post‐exclusion; the reasons for their exclusion from school; and on what forms of alternative provision were available to them after their permanent exclusion.     

少数民族女童低学业成就的归因分析与对策

国务院人口普查办公室1990年全国10％人口抽样调查资料表明，在全国三百多万6—14岁不在校人口中，西部地区就占了1／3强，其中56．96％的人口是女性，即在西部地区有65万多6—14岁的女童因为各种原因应该在校读书而没有在校。能否加快西部12省(区、直辖市)“普九”的步伐，有效解决西部地区少数民族女童教育问题，成为落实“两基”目标的重中之重。     

义务教育均衡发展的社会资本障碍及其政府治理

以追求教育公平为主旨的义务教育均衡发展既是一种政策取向,也是一种教育实践。目前,人们更关注义务教育的非均衡发展状态、成因及其治理问题。不同时期不同的生产方式、政策选择和制度安排是形成义务教育区域之间、城乡之间和校际之间差异的历史原因和现实原因。义务教育非均衡发展的直接后果是导致非规范性择校行为的发生。在择校过程中,家庭和学校社会资本的力量日益突出,其负向功能被诱发,破坏了就近入学政策,加剧了家庭与家庭之间、学校与学校之间社会资本的分化,损害了教育公平价值。由此,我们提出政府对于消除社会资本障碍的方向性建议:通过合理的政策选择和制度安排,在义务教育学校资源配置均衡的基础上,降低家庭社会资本在教育选择中的作用,建设学校社会资本发挥作用的良性竞争环境,从而治理目前部分家庭、学校社会资本参与择校所引发的社会问题。     

(S)exclusion in the sexuality education classroom: young people on gender and power relations

Comprehensive sexuality education which includes discussion about gender and power is increasingly seen as an effective way of promoting sexual and reproductive health and rights. Yet all too often the potential of good quality sexuality education is not realised. This study engages with young peoples’ evaluation of a sexuality education programme in Ethiopia. Using data from ethnographic field notes, focus group discussions and interviews with students, teachers and sexual and reproductive health workers in Oromia region, it reveals the existence of gendered practices in sexuality education. Three forms of exclusion were evident: first, exclusion through selection to participate in the programme; second, exclusion of the views of young people through gendered interpretations and practices; third, exclusion of the views of young people through the omission of discussion on topics that are relevant to them, such as love, relationships and sexual intercourse. As a result, the programme’s potential to contribute to questioning gender relations and improving the emotional and sexual health of young people is undermined. The programme reproduces a gender order in school and arguably broader society, which is a source of frustration and alienation for young people.     

Acculturation and religion in schools: the views of young people from minority belief backgrounds

This paper aims to explore the relationship between religious identity, acculturation strategies and perceptions of acculturation orientation in the school context amongst young people from minority belief backgrounds. Based on a qualitative study including interviews with 26 young people from religious minority belief backgrounds in Northern Ireland, it is argued that acculturation theory provides a useful lens for understanding how young people from religious minority belief backgrounds navigate majority religious school contexts. Using a qualitative approach to explore acculturation theory enables an in‐depth understanding of the inter‐relationship between minority belief youth's acculturation strategies and their respective school contexts. Similar to previous research, integrationist attitudes generally prevailed amongst minority belief young people in this study. The findings highlight how young people negotiate their religious identities in a complex web of inter‐relationships between their minority religious belief community and the mainstream school culture as represented through peer and staff attitudes, school ethos and practices and religious education. Young people demonstrated differentiated understandings of acculturation orientations within the school context, which they evaluated on the basis of complex perceptions of educational policy, interpersonal relationships and individuals' motivations. Findings are discussed in view of acculturation tensions, which arose particularly in relation to the religious education curriculum and their implications for opt‐out provision as stipulated by human rights law.     

Opportunity structures and educational marginality: the post-16 transitions of young people outside education and employment

This paper reports on findings from a three-year ethnographic study of 24 young people in northern England who were classified as not in education, employment or training (NEET), or at risk of becoming so. Drawing on conceptions of opportunity structure and educational marginality, the paper discusses the processes leading to young people becoming NEET after leaving school. It presents findings concerning the family backgrounds, school experiences, and educational attainment of participants, and traces their initial post-16 destinations and their pathways to NEET status. Although most participants did not become NEET immediately after leaving school, restricted labour market opportunities and a lack of high-quality education and training for middle- and low-attaining young people exacerbated social and educational disadvantage. Over time, participants became increasingly restricted to marginal forms of learning. The paper argues that a focus on opportunity structures provides a powerful way of understanding these processes, and that alongside sustained NEET status, educational marginality should be of equal concern to policy makers.     

The cost of school exclusion in England

Legislation in England and Wales since 1986 has sanctioned the permanent exclusion from school of pupils deemed disruptive. This punitive step has costs attached, which rise each year as the numbers excluded increase. This paper is mostly devoted to developing and applying a model to estimate the costs to public services of school exclusion in England. It also provides some illustrative cost data on the inclusion of behaviourally challenging pupils, explores policy alternatives to exclusion and argues that cost data provide valuable information in debate about policy options. Based on data gathered for the Commission for Racial Equality, the paper considers the costs to the full range of agencies involved when a child or young person is permanently excluded from school. Costs related to individuals vary hugely, but the average costs to education are high—double normal mainstream education—for less than 10 per cent of a full‐time education in the first year of exclusion. The costs to other agencies, particularly the police, are high. It is estimated that the cost in England of permanently excluded pupils in 1995/96 were approximately £71 million, and in 1996/97 over £81 million. As well as actual costs associated with permanent exclusions from school, consideration must be given to the returns on that expenditure. Currently the returns are poor, and the longer‐term costs may be high if continued full‐time education is not assured for young people to equip them to become citizens.     

农村义务教育学校布局调整政策的地方性理解与实践

自2001年中央发出农村义务教育学校布局调整政策指示十余年以来,我国农村义务教育格局发生了巨大的变化。通过对S省两地的实证调查发现,中央有关布局调整政策到地方层面执行时,由于行政官员自身的理解使政策带有地方性色彩,在政策执行中将政策目标简单化理解并量化操作,出现政策执行与政策指向相背离的情况。大量撤并村小和教学点、农村小学布局过于集中及隐性强行撤并的思路和做法,造成教育资源浪费,使农村小学生就近入学的教育机会受到损伤,也改变了一部分农村家庭的生产和生活方式。应建立一整套民主的教育政策决策和纠错机制,强化国家行为,保护处境不利群体的教育机会,最大程度地增强政策的理性。     

School spending and extension of the youth voting franchise: Quasi-experimental evidence from Norway

This paper provides quasi-experimental evidence from Norway on the relationship between local government school spending and the age composition of the electorate. We exploit a reduction in the minimum voting age from 18 to 16 years in selected local governments in the 2011 local election and a difference in differences strategy to estimate causal effects on compulsory school spending. The results do not support the hypothesis that newly enfranchised young voters prefer higher compulsory school spending. Instead, the numerical estimates on school spending point toward negative impacts. Since the newly enfranchised voters had just finished compulsory school and will not receive any direct benefit from compulsory school spending, the absence of positive effects is broadly consistent with the hypothesis that the new young voters behave selfishly. Further research with other types of data is needed to confirm this interpretation.     

Early School Leavers and Social Disadvantage in Spain: from books to bricks and vice-versa

It can be argued that in Spain there is a relationship between the high rates of early school leaving (ESL) and inactive or unemployed young people, as is evidenced by the current situation in which over half the working population aged 25 or younger is unemployed, many having completed compulsory education only. ESL and its social and economic consequences must be considered within the parameters and expectations of the Spanish labour market and how these expectations are/were linked to demands (or not) for continued education. This article considers the monumental social, political and economic changes that have occurred in Spain during a short span of time (including the real estate crash of 2008 and subsequent economic crisis), and how these issues intersect with measures that directly concern the educational system. It also considers a variety of endogenous and exogenous factors related to the Spanish educational system, and the impact these have on rates of ESL. The article ends with a discussion of policies and practices that may reduce ESL rates and help transform the Spanish general perception of early school leavers from a ‘lost generation’ to a generation of young people with potential for helping Spain move out of its current economic crisis.     

西北民族地区义务教育贫困生资助需求及相关政策研究

优先发展民族地区义务教育需要学生资助优惠政策的保障。在我国民族地区义务教育阶段现有资助情况下,贫困生就学过程中由于学习资源和条件的匮乏引起的辍学现象仍然存在,维护贫困群体享有公平的教育权利仍然需要进一步的资助投入。构成民族地区贫困学生辍学和失学风险的各项成本负担正是民族地区贫困学生实际资助需求的现实反映。根据这些需求和民族特点构建专门针对我国少数民族地区义务教育阶段的贫困生资助体系,对发展我国民族地区义务教育是一种必然要求。     

Resilience and school success of young immigrants / Resiliencia y éxito escolar en jóvenes inmigrantes

Secondary school is a high-risk academic period for young immigrants from disadvantaged environments. Despite this, some students are successful in their transition to post-16 education. The present study examines the relationship between resilience and completing school in immigrant young people in Spain. A mixed method design was followed. Ninety-four students in their fourth year of compulsory education participated; they included 19 different nationalities. Results of this study suggest that students who continue their studies beyond obligatory education have higher levels of resilience. The findings also suggest the activation of the relational dimension of ‘social capital’ in young people. Factors such as academic self-concept, the presence of peers as models of school success and the social capital available in their networks are also relevant.     

转型时期我国义务教育公平的内涵与政策取向

教育公平是一个历史性的、多层次的概念。推进转型时期我国义务教育公平发展,需要确立正确的教育政策价值取向,要突出教育政策的公平性、坚持"义务教育优先"、关注个体的教育选择权、突出弱势关怀精神和"以人为本"的政策理念,从而保障教育政策能够公平地配置公共教育资源,促进义务教育公共服务均等化,使所有受教育者公平地接受义务教育。     

The pencil and the shepherd's crook. Ethnography of Maasai education

This paper aims to study the various forms of education to be found amongst the Kisongo Maasai, a pastoral population in Tanzania, both in their own right and in terms of what their encounter with one another implies. The late and rather limited development of schooling in that remote area and educational policies, as well as the pastoral way of life of this population, combine to produce a low rate of schooling: around 33% of children enrolled in primary schools versus a national rate that was twice as high in the 1990s. Few of these pupils go on to secondary schooling. The paper attempts to show the impact of primary schooling on educational practices and, more generally, on the Maasai way of life. Although they coexist side by side to a large extent, formal schooling and ‘traditional’ education—offering conflicting forms of knowledge that are conveyed in widely different fashions—usually tend to be in competition with each other, especially when it comes to pastoral education. Whereas in school all pupils are given the same instruction in a single classroom, in their communities young Maasai receive distinct kinds of education from different persons and in different places, depending on gender and age. Education for girls, non-circumcised boys and warriors is therefore orientated towards domestic labour, pastoral activities and practices associated with warriorhood. After highlighting the dynamics of interaction amongst the various forms of education, the paper focuses on Maasai perceptions of school and on the various educational strategies such perceptions generate.     

Industry school partnerships: reconstituting spaces of educational governance

Industry school partnerships have emerged recently in Australia as a policy solution for the management of problems associated with integration into the global economy. This paper draws on governmentality theory to examine a transnational partnership, the Gateways to the Aerospace Industry Project, which has been mobilised to manage transition risk for young people in the state education system of Queensland, Australia. It argues that globalisation emerges as an effect of knowledge producing practices and programmes that seek to reconfigure the governmental spaces and subjectivities in and around schools and communities.