Parental Psychological Control: Revisiting a Neglected Construct

This article argues for the value in socialization research of focusing explicitly on the construct of parental psychological control of children—control that constrains, invalidates, and manipulates children's psychological and emotional experience and expression. The article traces the history of the construct and distinguishes psychological control theoretically and empirically from more behaviorally oriented control. 2 new measures of psychological control are developed. Data from 3 separate studies are presented which indicate that psychological control can be adequately measured across demographically varied samples and mode of measurement. In both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, psychological control, particularly as perceived by preadolescents and adolescents, is consistently predictive of youth internalized problems (depression) and, in some cases, externalized problems (delinquency). In contrast, behavioral control is related primarily to externalized problems.     

Depressive mood and social maladjustment: Differential effects on academic achievement

The Children Depression Inventory (CDI) is a multidimensional instrument that includes items of social withdrawal, anhedonia, asthenia, low self-esteem (internalized) and behavioral problems (externalized). Child depression has been related with low academic achievement, neurotic and introverted personality traits and social maladjustment defined by aggressiveness, psychoticism and antisocial behavior. In this work, it is hypothesized that in non-clinical populations, the relationships between CDI scores and a low academic achievement might be basically due to social maladjustment assessed by the behavioral items of this instrument, which do not necessarily tap depressive mood. The effects of both depressive mood and social maladjustment on academic achievement are analyzed in an adolescent sample of 315 boys and 363 girls through Structural Equation Modelling procedures. Results corroborate the hypothesis that social maladjustment measured by the CDI behavioral items and Psychoticism explain low academic achievement over and above depressive mood measured by the rest of the CDI items, extraversion and neuroticism.     

Emotion regulation as a mediator of the relation between sexual abuse and behavior problems in preschoolers

Maltreated children show poor emotion regulation competencies compared to non-maltreated children. Emotion regulation has been found to mediate the association between maltreatment and behavior problems in children. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationships among child sexual abuse (CSA), emotion regulation (ER), and internalized and externalized behavior problems in preschoolers using conditional process analyses. ER competencies were assessed in 127 children aged 41–79 months (62 abused, 65 non-abused) by their parents (N = 124) and early childhood educators (N = 88) using the Emotion Regulation Checklist (Shields and Cicchetti, 1995, Shields and Cicchetti, 1997). Behavior problems were evaluated by parents using the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach and Rescorla, 2000, Achenbach and Rescorla, 2001). ER was found to completely mediate the relation between CSA and internalized behavior problems and partially mediate the relation between CSA and externalized behavior problems. Parents’ and educators’ evaluations of ER were also found to differ as a function of child gender. The discussion focuses on the relationships among CSA, ER, behavior problems, and child gender. The clinical implications of these findings are also examined. Promoting the optimal development of ER could prevent the emergence and exacerbation of behavior problems in these at-risk children and, in turn, foster resilience.     

Preliminary investigation of an early mental health intervention for Head Start programs: Effects of Child Teacher Relationship Training on children's behavior problems

Head Start teachers and their aides (n = 24) were assigned to either the experimental or active control treatment in this preliminary investigation on the effects of Child Teacher Relationship Training (CTRT) on 52 disadvantaged preschool children identified with behavioral problems. CTRT is based on the principles and procedures of Child Parent Relationship Therapy (CPRT), a structured, time‐limited approach that trains young children's caregivers to be active participants in an early mental health delivery system. Analysis of pre‐ to mid‐ to posttest findings revealed that, compared to the active control, CTRT demonstrated a large treatment effect on reducing children's externalized behavior problems; furthermore, the between‐group difference over time was statistically significant. The statistical, practical, and clinical significance of findings provide preliminary support for CTRT as a developmentally responsive school‐based intervention for at‐risk preschool children exhibiting clinical levels of behavioral problems. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

初中留守儿童的安全感、行为问题及其关系的研究

【目的】探讨初中留守儿童安全感与行为问题的特点以及两者之间的关系。【方法】采用修订后的马斯洛安全感-不安全感量表和Rutter儿童行为问卷对98名初中留守儿童和115名对照组儿童进行测查。【结果】(1)初中留守儿童的情绪安全感、安全感总分显著低于对照组儿童;初中留守儿童的神经症行为与行为问题总分显著高于对照组儿童。(2)在初中留守儿童中,一年级的人际安全感显著低于二、三年级,男生的A行为显著高于女生,而女生的N行为显著高于男生。(3)监护类型、监护人在别人面前对孩子的负面评价是留守儿童行为问题的危险因素;亲子分离时间是初中留守儿童安全感的危险因素。(4)人际安全感对于初中留守儿童的A行为具有显著的负向预测作用,情绪安全感则对N行为和行为总分具有显著的负向预测作用。【结论】(1)初中留守儿童的情绪安全感相对较低,N行为等内隐行为问题突出;(2)初中留守儿童的安全感是行为问题的一个重要预测变量。     

The Relationship between Children's Emotional and Behavioral Problems and the Social Responses of Elementary School Teachers

This study examined the relationship between children's emotional and behavioral problems and teachers' social responding. Elementary school students completed the Children's Depression Inventory and a parent completed the Child Behavior Checklist. Teachers rated children on measures of interpersonal attractiveness and personal rejection. Teachers' ratings of student interpersonal attractiveness were significantly correlated with the level of student depression, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and overall psychopathology. However, teachers' ratings of personal rejection toward students only correlated with externalizing behavior problems. Family income was also related to child adjustment and teacher ratings. Externalizing behavior problems best predicted both lower interpersonal attractiveness and increased personal rejection, even after controlling for family income. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.     

Personality development following sexual abuse

Thirty-seven girls and twelve boys who had been sexually abused at an average of 2.6 years previously were traced and reviewed. The nonoffending parents participated in a structured interview and the children were assessed using the Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale and the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist. Each child was matched with a child not known to have been sexually abused and these control children underwent a similar psychological assessment. Interviews with the nonoffending parents found that 76% of the children were thought to be less confident than before, 30% had fewer friends, and 20% were more aggressive. Increased sexual awareness was noted in 24%. School teachers reported that 28% still had behavior problems, 17% had repeated a year at school, and a further 17% had deteriorated in their school work. The sexually abused girls had significantly lower self-esteem than the control girls. There was no difference in self-esteem between the control and the sexually abused boys. There was a higher incidence of stranger assault in the boys compared with the girls. The Child Behavior Checklist completed by the parents, the Teacher Report Form, and the Youth Self-Report of the Child Behavior Checklist showed that a highly significant proportion of sexually abused children fell into the clinical range. Sexual abuse appears to have long-term adverse consequences for many of the victims. This may have implications for their ability to relate to others, for the adult friendships they will make, and eventually for the way they will relate to their own children.     

The Effects of Political Violence on Palestinian Children's Behavior Problems: A Risk Accumulation Model

Interviews with 150 Palestinian mothers and their children living amidst the Intifada in the West Bank were conducted to assess exposure to political violence and family negativity as risk factors associated with behavioral problems as measured by the Child Behavior Checklist. The number of risks present in the child's life was significantly correlated with the number of behavioral problems the child exhibited ( R = .53, p < .001). The analysis further examined the role of gender, age, and community context in moderating the impact of high levels of accumulated risk on children's behavioral problems. Under conditions of high accumulated risk, boys evidenced more problems than girls, and younger children exhibited more problems than older children. Community context (as indicated by a high or low level of political violence) was a significant factor for girls but not for boys.     

Psychological profiles of sexually abusive adolescents in Ireland

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to profile the psychological and psychosocial characteristics of a group of Irish adolescents who had sexually abused other youngsters. METHOD: Levels of behavior problems, personal adjustment, anger management, and psychosocial adjustment were compared in 27 Irish adolescents with a history of sexually abusing another youngster (SA group), 20 clinical controls who had significant behavioral problems but no history of sexual offending (CC group), and 29 normal controls who were without significant psychological problems (NC group). Measures used included the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), the Youth Self-Report Form (YSR), selected scales from Beckett (1997) Adolescent Sex Offender Assessment Pack (ASOAP), and the Family Environment Scale (FES). RESULTS: Compared with the CC group, the SA group displayed fewer problems overall on the CBCL and the YSR. The SA group showed problems with self-esteem, emotional loneliness, and perspective-taking similar to those of the CC group, but their impulsivity scores were similar to those of the NC group. The locus of control scores of the SA group fell between those of the CC and NC groups. The SA group showed an anger management profile that fell at an intermediate position between those of the NC and CC groups. The SA group showed problematic family functioning in the areas of expressiveness, behavior control, and social support, similar to those of the CC group. Their difficulties with family cohesion were less severe than those of the CC group but worse than those of the NC group. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the psychological adjustment of adolescents with a history of sexually abusing others was more problematic than that of normal controls but less problematic than that of youngsters who had significant behavioral problems but no history of sexual offending.     

The effects of parental psychopathology and maltreatment on child behavior: a test of the diathesis-stress model

Past research on risk factors in child development has tended to focus on 1 risk factor rather than examining the effects of multiple factors simultaneously. The present research examines the main and interactive effects of parental psychopathology (schizophrenia, psychiatric control, and normal control) and maltreatment on child behavior. Child aggression, delinquency, and social withdrawal were assessed at 2 times so that the effects of risk factors on behavioral change could also be examined. The results indicate significant relations between the risk factors and child behavior. Most notably, parental psychiatric status and maltreatment interacted significantly, such that offspring of schizophrenic parents from maltreating families showed increases in externalized behavior problems over time. These results support a diathesis-stress model of psychopathology.     

Theory of mind,attention, and executive function in kindergarten boys

The present study explored the relationship between theory of mind (ToM), attention, and executive function in 66 kindergarten boys drawn from four rural school districts. Three stories designed to test understanding of first and second order mental states were administered. Executive function and attention were assessed, respectively, by scores on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and the Behavior Assessment Scales for Children, Second Edition (BASC‐2). Analyses indicated that children identified by teachers as evidencing attention difficulties scored lower on false belief measures and were more likely to be identified as exhibiting behavioral difficulties associated with executive dysfunction than children identified as evidencing fewer attention difficulties. Attention and executive function were predictive of total ToM scores.     

Family-Centered Intervention for Young Children at-risk for Language and Behavior Problems

This study investigated the effects of a family-centered intervention that involved parents in weekly assessments and daily routine activities for promoting young children’s language and behavior. Forty-one 3–5-year-old children at-risk for language and behavior problems, recruited from three developmental pre-schools, were randomly assigned to a control and an intervention group that received parent–professional support. Analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) were used to examine whether groups differed on post-test scores on the Test of Early Language Development—Third Edition and Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, using pre-test scores as a covariate. Results showed that children in the intervention group outperformed children in the control group on both tests. The study indicated that family-centered intervention is an effective method for empowering parents to identify and implement concrete solutions to their children’s problems, especially when done as part of a professional collaboration.     

A mediational model linking perceptions of security,alexithymia and behavior problems of sexually abused children

BackgroundPerceptions of security toward parents are related with internalized and externalized problems among victims of child sexual abuse (CSA). Alexithymia, which is difficulty in identifying and expressing feelings, is associated with the quality of parent-child relationships (Oskis et al., 2013) and behavior problems in children (Di Trani et al., 2013).ObjectiveThe current study tested the mediational role of alexithymia in the relationship between perceptions of security toward parents and behavior problems among CSA victims.Participants and methodUsing a short-term multi-informant prospective design, 263 victims of CSA aged 6–12 years completed the Kerns Security Scale (Kerns, Klepac, & Cole, 1996), which evaluates perceived attachment security to mothers and fathers. Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) at Time 1 to provide baseline scores of behavior problems and again four months later. At Time 2, parents also assessed the children’s alexithymia using the Children’s Alexithymia Measure (Way et al., 2010).ResultsPerceptions of security were both associated with alexithymia, as well as with internalizing and externalizing problems (p < .05). A mediational model showed that perception of security toward fathers outweighed the mother-child relationship in predicting children’s alexithymia. Path analysis revealed that the father-child relationship predicted decreased behavioral problems at Time 2 through a lower level of alexithymia. The model explained 46.9% of internalizing problems and 56.1% of externalizing problems (p < .05).ConclusionsThe findings support the relevance of alexithymia as an intervention target for CSA victims and underscore the importance of the father-child relationship.     

Psychological adjustment and family functioning of boys with learning disabilities

This study examined parent reports of behavioral and family functioning for 59 boys with learning disabilities (LD) and 65 nondisabled boys (NLD) of ages 6 to 12 years. Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale (FACES III). Boys with LD were reported as having significantly more behavior problems of both the Internalizing and Externalizing types than NLD boys. Individual scales yielded group differences indicating higher scores (more problems) for the group with LD on the Hyperactive, Schizoid or Anxious, Depressed, and Obsessive Compulsive scales, but no differences on the Aggressive or Social Withdrawal scales. Furthermore, families of boys with LD tended to score more frequently in the extreme (disturbed) range of family functioning. However, boys of families in the extreme range did not have more behavior problems than the boys of other families. The findings suggest that a greater than average proportion of boys with LD are at risk for developing psychological adjustment problems.     

Behavioral self-regulation and relations to emergent academic skills among children in Germany and Iceland

The present study investigated a direct assessment of behavioral self-regulation (the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders; HTKS) and its contribution to early academic achievement among young children in Germany and Iceland. The authors examined the psychometric properties and construct validity of the HTKS, investigated gender differences in young children's behavioral self-regulation, and explored relations between the HTKS and a teacher report of behavioral self-regulation (the Child Behavior Rating Scale; CBRS) and emerging academic skills. Findings supported the construct validity of the HTKS when used with young German and Icelandic children. Multilevel analyses revealed gender differences, particularly on the CBRS teacher-rated measure. Finally, higher levels of behavioral self-regulation were related to higher academic skills after important background variables were controlled, although some cross-cultural differences in the predictive utility of the HTKS and CBRS were observed. Overall, these results extend prior psychometric work on the HTKS to samples of young European children and support the importance of understanding of the role behavioral self-regulation in young children's development.     

Emotional indicators on the Bender-Gestalt and the Devereux Child Behavior Rating Scale

A heterogeneous group of elementary school children referred for psychoeducational diagnosis were rated on the Devereux Child Behavior Rating Scale and the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, scoring for Koppitz Emotional Indicators. Projective implications of the EIs were not supported by the DCB factors; however, five DCB factors correlated significantly with total number of EIs. This finding suggests that cerain DCB factors may be more predictive of emotional problems than others in the scale.     

Grade repetition and psychological referrals in relation to child behavior checklist scores for students in elementary school

A sample of 738 students from grades 1 to 5 who were exhibiting behavior problems were nominated by teachers and subsequently assessed for behavioral disturbance using the Teacher's Report Form (TRF) of the Child Behavior Checklist. The data were analyzed to assess the accuracy of the TRF in discriminating disturbed and nondisturbed students, the internal consistency of the instrument, and its validity against measures of school functioning in terms of grade repetition and referral for special services support.     

Importance of Early Intervention for Disruptive Behavior Problems: Comparison of Treatment and Waitlist-Control Groups

The stability of young children's behavior problems and the effectiveness of an early intervention approach known as Parent–Child Interaction Therapy are examined. Participants were 32 families with young children (ages 2.5 to 8.6 years) who were referred for treatment of disruptive behavior. The families were divided into two groups: the waitlist-control and treatment groups. Dependent measures were administered at both Assessment 1 (the time of referral) and Assessment 2 (the end of treatment for the treatment group; immediately prior to treatment for the waitlist-control group). No significant differences were found between the waitlist-control and treatment groups at Assessment 1 on the dependent variables, the Child Behavior Checklist, Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, and Parenting Stress Index. However, the behavior of the treatment group improved over the course of approximately 3 months of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy, while the behavior of the waitlist-control group continued to be problematic at the end of a similar time period. Results are discussed with regard to the stability of young children's behavior problems and the importance of early intervention.     

The Long-Term Effects of Parental Divorce on the Mental Health of Young Adults: A Developmental Perspective

The effects of parental divorce during childhood and adolescence on the mental health of young adults (age 23) were examined, using the National Child Development Study (NCDS), a longitudinal, multimethod, nationally representative survey of all children born in Great Britain during 1 week in 1958 ( N = 17,414). Children were assessed at birth and subsequently followed up at ages 7, 11, 16, and 23 by means of maternal and child interviews, and by psychological, school, and medical assessments. Parental divorce had a moderate, long-term negative impact on adult mental health, as measured by the Malaise Inventory total score, and controlling for economic status, children's emotional problems, and school performance preceding marital dissolution. The likelihood of scoring above the clinical cutoff of the Malaise Inventory rose from 8% to 11% due to parental divorce. This indicated that the relative risk of serious emotional disorders increased in the aftermath of divorce, but that the large majority of individuals did not exhibit such risks. Path analyses revealed that the negative effects of divorce on adult mental health operated indirectly through higher emotional problems and lower levels of school achievement and family economic status at age 16. Results related to timing of divorce, remarriage, and interactions between age 7 emotional problems and divorce, and between age 7 emotional problems and child gender, are also discussed.     

同伴接纳与流动儿童外化问题行为的关系:自尊和物质主义的链式中介作用

本研究探讨同伴接纳对流动儿童的外化问题行为的影响,以及自尊、物质主义的链式中介作用。在武汉市三所小学选取478名五、六年级的流动儿童,运用同伴提名法、物质主义价值观量表-儿童版(MVS-c)、自尊量表(SES)、儿童青少年问题行为问卷(CB)进行问卷调查。结果发现,同伴接纳、物质主义价值观、自尊、外化问题行为四者均显著相关;同伴接纳对外化问题行为具有很强的直接预测作用,也会通过物质主义价值观和自尊的部分中介作用而影响外化问题行为,还会通过自尊、物质主义的链式中介作用影响外化问题行为。