俄罗斯中央集权国家的形成

十三——十四世纪,当罗斯仍然处于封建割据状态时,外部敌人的侵入把罗斯的领土分割成三部分:金帐汗国统治下的东北罗斯;立陶宛统治下的西北罗斯;波兰统治下的加里奇公国(后来立陶宛与波兰合併为一个国家)。十四世纪时,东北罗斯名义上还是一个弗拉基米尔大公国,臣属于金帐汗国,实际上是一些政治上独立的封建国家:特维公国、莫斯科公国、梁赞公国、尼什湼     

成吉思汗西征中亚的原因和历史背境

成吉思汗西征中亚的原因和历史背境钱伯泉１３世纪初期，成吉思汗出兵征服了中亚，并将这一地区分封给他的长子术赤和次子察合台，此后形成了钦察汗国（又称“金帐汗国）和察合台汗国。钦察汗国崩溃后，在其境内先后出现了哈萨克汗国、阿斯特拉罕汗国、喀出汗国、克里米亚...     

哈萨克古代文献研究--金帐汗国克普恰克-花拉子模文献(之二)

此文继库特普的名著《胡斯劳与西琳》之后,介绍了金帐汗国14世纪时期著名作家花拉子米的《爱情书》、赛非.萨莱依的《蔷薇园》以及《天堂之路》、《升天记》等作品。文末并介绍了金帐汗国时期两件著名的敕令:托赫塔米斯敕令(1393)和铁木尔.库特鲁克敕令(1397)。     

哈萨克历史研究(一)——金帐汗国

此文为作者撰写的关于哈萨克古文献系列研究文章后,有关哈萨克族历史的第一篇论文。金帐汗国一开始并不是完全独立的政权,它只是大蒙古帝国的一部分,金帐汗国从1242年建立到15世纪中期,存在约200年之久。这一时期是哈萨克民族形成发展历史中的重要阶段,这一时期哈萨克语的特点已经形成。     

蒙古西征下的伊斯兰世界——试论13世纪伊斯兰教的发展

1206年成吉思汗统一蒙古后,新兴的蒙古帝国先后发动三次西征。蒙古的西征一直打到地中海沿岸,其对伊斯兰世界的破坏可以说是毁灭性的。在蒙古军的暴力破坏下,短短数年一大批城市变成废墟,同时伊斯兰的哈里发教廷亦遭摧毁。然而,在伊斯兰教临近灭亡的边缘时,却得以奇迹般地生存下来,并开始了新一轮的发展,蒙古人建立的察合台汗国、伊尔汗国、金帐汗国纷纷伊斯兰化,同时,伊斯兰教在中国亦得到长足发展。整个13世纪可以说是伊斯兰教在其历史中的一个转折点。     

从蒙元汗廷金帐看元上都的性质和地位

蒙元汗廷金帐(失剌斡耳朵)是汗廷的权力中心所在地,是汗廷的标志性建筑.可以拆卸和移动的失刺斡耳朵充分反映了游牧文明的游动迁徙特征.失剌斡耳朵设在上都,在失剌斡耳朵举行的元朝传统的政治、经济、宗教、娱乐等活动,充分说明元朝是大蒙古国的延续,上都是曲雕阿阑和哈喇和林在漠南的延续.13 ～ 14世纪除了元朝其他几个汗国也拥有金帐,说明金帐象征着蒙古大小可汗们的政治权利.元廷北迁后,汗廷金帐成为成吉思汗八白帐的组成部分并传承至今.17世纪蒙古文文献中有关失剌斡耳朵的记载说明失刺斡耳朵在北元汗廷和蒙古人中的地位和影响.对蒙元汗廷金帐的研究有助于对于元上都文化的深入研究.     

哈萨克汗国时期的法律初探

哈萨克汗国是白帐汗国最后一个可汗之子克烈汗（又译作克拉依汗）,于１４５６年在白帐汗国发生分裂后,与贾尼别克汗一起,率领部分游牧部落向东迁徙,进入巴尔喀什湖以南,即我国明代西域察合台后裔政权亦力把里（东察合台汗国）境内,在楚河、塔拉斯河流域广阔的土地上...     

伊儿汗国对外关系之考察

13世纪中期，旭烈兀创建伊儿汗国，在中西交通史上开辟了一个新领域。在黄金氏族内部，诸伊儿汗站在忽必烈一边，坚决反对察哈台系、窝阅台系分裂蒙古帝国的斗争，与元朝保持密切的友好关系，也使伊儿汗国与金帐汗国的斗争局限于领地纠分问题之上。为了实现蒙古帝国向西征服叙利亚、埃及的目标，诸伊儿汗承袭帝国传统的外交政策，企图与基督教西方结成反对埃及马木路克王朝的共同阵线，随着十字军运动的失利和伊儿汗国伊斯兰化，波斯的蒙古人在争夺叙利亚的战争中最终失败。     

哈萨克古代文献研究--金帐汗国克普恰克-花拉子模文献(之一)

金帐汗国时期的克普恰克语文献是古代哈萨克文学一个重要组成部分.介绍了用克普恰克语写成的主要语言学和文学（广义的）方面的文献,并重点介绍了文学方面的重要名著库特普的《胡斯劳与西琳》.     

赛马好手－－乌孜别克族

中国乌孜别克族勤劳勇敢、热情好客、能歌善舞，具有悠久历史和灿烂文化，现有人口14502人（1990年统计数字），散居于新疆维吾尔族自治区。族名源于14世纪的蒙古钦察汗国的乌孜别克汗，15世纪时，钦察汗国瓦解，原来作为它的组成部分的乌孜别克汗国逐步强大起来，占据着今西伯利亚西部和哈萨克斯坦的广大地区，居民主要是各种不同来源的突厥─蒙古游牧民，他们笼统地被称为乌孜别克人。乌孜别克族的先民很早就从中亚迁入我国新疆，17世纪起陆续从中亚细亚安集延、浩罕等地迁入中国。元代，常有金帐汗国的乌孜别克人沿着古代“丝绸之路”经…     

卡思卡特城堡

It is worthy of noting that, whilst Crookston Castle witnessed the earlier and happier portion of Mary's variegated life,     

不同的吃喝玩乐

一、吃和喝吃苹果 eat an apple, 吃药 take medicine,吃糖 have some sweets,吃饭 have one's meals,吃馆子 dine out,吃惊 be surprised/     

漏洞百出的教育

Many college freshmen arrive woefully unprepared to do college work, and as disadvantaged populations continue to grow, the share of the American work force that has made it through college is expected to plummet. Many experts blame that educational failure not just on high schools but also on colleges. School & College, a special report by The Chronicle, looks at efforts to fix the system. What reforms would better prepare students for college? What should schools and colleges be doing differently? How should state and federal officials help?     

只要努力,不要后悔

There are numbers of crossroads on our long and unpredictable life journey where we totally have no idea about which direction to choose. No matter what our decision is, we should not turn back, but face the music and go ahead instead. I am this kind of girl who always does try without regretting, one example is how I dealt with my love.     

浅谈移民问题

Migration occurs behind a variety of reasons and has a great effect on the whole world. People may migrate in order to improve their economic situation, or in order to escape civil strife, persecution, and environmental disasters. The impact of migration is complex, bringing both benefits anddisadvantages. This paper briefly talks about the causes of migration, the allocation of benefits, and the ways in which individual countries and the international community deal with this important subject.     

Sister Carrie, an Adherent of Desires

Sister Carrie is one of the most controversial characters in American literature.Thought as a "fallen woman" firstly,she was defined as a "new woman" by some critics later. However, by digging into the motivaton behind the whole process of Carrie's "success", the relationship between Carrie and her creator (the author), the social conditions of then American, it can be found that Carrie has never been free-standing on her thought and she has never found her real-sdf even after becoming a famous actress. In a society dominated by mass consumerism Carrie is only an adherent of her own desires. She also is a representative of all those country girls flooded into cities, a symbol and a sacrifice of the urbanization of America in a time countryside was overcome by cities.     

Improvement of one-cycle controller by use of proportional integral differential controller

1.IntroductionOne-cyclecontrolmethod,whichwasproposedaboutonedecadeago[1],hasbecomeanattractivemethodinspecialfieldssuchaspowerfactorcorrection[2-6],switchingamplifiers[7,8],etc.Themainideaofthiscontrollerisbasedonintegrationofdiodevoltageinone-cycleandforcesittobeexactlyequaltothereferencevalue.Themainadvantageofthiscontrollerisitsrealtimeabilitytorejectthevariationofinputvoltage[1].Despitethisgreatability,ithasnogoodperformancesinrejectingofloaddisturbanceandfollowingreferencecommands.Espec…     

库克斯顿城堡

城堡, 是欧洲典型的建筑之一, 每个城堡都有一个美丽的传说或是一段历史。从本期开始, 我们将推出“城堡之旅”, 带各位读者去浏览、观赏欧洲各地的城堡, 开始一段文化与历史的旅途!     

胡主席在印度,我却在中国

Today, Sunday morning, I sit thinking and typing at my computer. My thoughts are in my homeland, India and my body is in China. The body is here and mind there for a good reason. Mr. Hu is president and I am resident and both are in each other's countries (what a difference the absence of one small letter makes!). Mr. Hu will return in a few days and I will stay on longer.