Spontaneous recovery from overexpectation

In three Pavlovian magazine approach experiments, rats received conditioning of auditory and visual stimuli by pairing with a pellet. Then the stimuli received additional conditioning while presented in simultaneous compound and were tested either immediately or after a delay. The compound conditioning resulted in a decrement in responding to the individual stimuli (overexpectation). However, there was recovery of responding with the passage of time. These results suggest that the decrements produced by an overexpectation procedure share some properties with those produced by nonreinforcement.     

Food as a contextual cue in counterconditioning experiments: Is there a counterconditioning process?

In three experiments, counterconditioning was found to reduce fear less effectively than extinction. In Experiments 1 and 2, the resistance to extinction of avoidance was greater if food was given during extinction of fear to the CS than if no food was given, even when exposure to the CS and numbers of food and no food confinement trials were equated. It is suggested that these results could be attributed to contextual control of fear extinction by the food cue and/or to frustration produced by removing food for the counterconditioning group. Experiment 3 also found counterconditioning to be less effective than extinction and provided evidence that this difference occurs because of contextual control of fear extinction by the food cue. Measuring conditioned suppression of licking, in a test with no food present, less fear was shown if no food had been present during fear extinction, and greater fear was shown if no food had been present during fear conditioning. These results indicate that food is an important part of the context controlling fear and fear extinction. It is suggested that there may be no unique counterconditioning process. Rather, when counterconditioning procedures are employed, rules governing interference paradigms in general may apply. Thus, in a test for fear following counterconditioning, fear will be shown to the extent the test situation is similar to that in which fear conditioning occurred rather than that in which fear reduction occurred.     

Spontaneous recovery of instrumental discriminative responding

In six experiments, rats received discriminative training in which making a response (R) during a stimulus (S) produced a particular outcome (O). In Experiment 1, that outcome was replaced by a second outcome and responding was tested either immediately or after a delay. More substantial responding was observed with the delayed test. In Experiment 2, a test of transfer to new responses suggested that the growth in performance was not attributable to greater use of particular S-O associations. However, in Experiment 3, the growth in responding was found to be specific to particular S-R combinations. Experiment 4 replicated that specificity and demonstrated the importance of using two different outcomes for obtaining the growth in responding with time. Experiments 5 and 6 repeated these observations for the case of extinction, in which O was replaced by nonreinforcement. These results are interpreted as suggesting that an outcome-independent inhibitory S-R process develops, both with extinction and with the use of a second outcome, but dissipates with time.     

Spontaneous recovery after training with multiple outcomes

Four experiments explored the increase in an instrumental response (R) with time after it had been subjected either to extinction or to training with a second outcome (O). Experiment 1 found less performance of an extinguished response immediately after extinction than after a 7-day delay (spontaneous recovery). Experiments 2–4 found a similar difference when training with a second outcome replaced extinction, despite the failure of that replacement to itself undermine performance. Similar results did not occur when the second outcome was identical to that used in initial training. These results suggest that training with a novel outcome generates a decremental process that is not directly observable but that dissipates with time.     

Spontaneous recovery after reversal and partial reinforcement

Six experiments used magazine approach in rat subjects to explore changes with time in responding for stimuli brought to a common moderate level of performance through acquisition or extinction. They found no evidence for increases with time in behavior during stimuli given simple acquisition. However, stimuli brought to that same level by reversal learning, repeated reversal, or partial reinforcement all showed increases in responding with time. These results suggest that the decremental process established by nonreinforcement endures through subsequent reinforcement and is especially sensitive to the passage of time.     

Spontaneous recovery evoked by a nonreinforced stimulus

Pigeons (nine groups of seven) were given one acquisition session of 20 trials. The following day their responding was extinguished, and after a 30-min rest period they were tested for residual response strength. The groups differed with respect to (1) whether a distinctive stimulus was presented during acquisition on the first trial, the 15th trial, or not at all, (2) whether or not responses to the distinctive stimulus were reinforced, and (3) whether a distinctive stimulus, a standard stimulus, or a completely novel stimulus was presented on the test trial. Results supported the position that a stimulus associated with the onset of an acquisition session, but not with the extinction session, evokes greater response strength on a spontaneous recovery test trial than do other stimuli in the acquisition session. This holds true even if responses to this stimulus are never reinforced. In addition, it was found that, unlike a previous study that invoked five daily acquisition sessions, pigeons did not demonstrate increased responding to a novel stimulus.     

Spontaneous recovery after Pavlovian conditioning with multiple outcomes

In four experiments using rats, a Pavlovian conditioned stimulus (CS) was paired with a positive outcome, either pellets or liquid sucrose. That outcome was then either omitted altogether or replaced by another outcome. Although performance to the CS deteriorated only when the outcome was omitted, both procedures resulted in the CS’s ability to evoke greater responding after the passage of time. These results suggest that a similar outcome-independent depressive process develops when a Pavlovian CS is paired either with nonreinforcement or with a different outcome; that process then appears to dissipate with time.     

Spontaneous recovery varies inversely with the training-extinction interval

Four experiments found the magnitude of spontaneous recovery after extinction to be greater with a shorter interval between initial conditioning and extinction. Experiments 1 and 2 used a Pavlovian magazine approach procedure with rat subjects, Experiment 3 used an instrumental training procedure with rats, and Experiment 4 used a sign-tracking procedure with pigeons. These results are not anticipated by many accounts of spontaneous recovery that attribute it to the fading of learning that occurred during extinction.     

Spontaneous recovery without interference: Why remembering is adaptive

Spontaneous recovery from extinction is a reliable result of two ingredients, variable training outcomes and the passage of time. Accounts of the phenomenon, which have come to focus on interference at the level of memory retrieval, have been based on simple associative learning tasks. The present study was designed to determine whether a more complex task—one requiring spatial mapping, timing, and patch assessment—would be subject to spontaneous recovery. Results showed that spontaneous recovery (1) makes a robust appearance in such tasks, (2) does not require interference among conflicting memories, but instead (3) requires ready access to training memories, and (4) is closely modeled by the temporal weighting rule, a quantitative model of patch choice that prescribes how value is best assigned to variable resources (L. D. Devenport & J. A. Devenport, 1994).     

Spontaneous recovery and ABC renewal from retroactive cue interference

Two conditioned suppression experiments with rats were conducted to determine whether the spontaneous recovery and renewal that are commonly observed in retroactive outcome interference (e.g., extinction) also occur in retroactive cue interference. Experiment 1 showed that a long delay between Phase 2 (the interfering phase) and testing produces a recovery from the cue interference (i.e., the delay enhanced responding to the target cue trained in Phase 1), which is analogous to the spontaneous recovery effect observed in extinction and other retroactive outcome interference procedures. Experiment 2 showed that, when target and interfering cues are trained in separate contexts and testing occurs in a different but familiar context, a recovery from the cue interference is also observed (i.e., the context shift enhanced responding to the target), which is analogous to ABC renewal from extinction. The results are discussed in terms of the possibility that similar associative mechanisms underlie cue and outcome interference.     

Spontaneous recovery after extinction of a conditioned taste aversion

Four experiments examined whether or not spontaneous recovery could occur after extinction in the conditioned taste-aversion paradigm. After three extinction trials, spontaneous recovery was obtained over an 18-day retention interval (Experiments 1, 2, and 3). The effect was not due to changes in the unconditioned preference for saccharin over the retention interval (Experiment 2) or to an increase in a nonextinguished aversion over time, as indicated by tests with both the original, nonextinguished aversion (Experiment 1) and with a weaker one (Experiment 3). Spontaneous recovery was not obtained when extinction was overtrained (eight trials) and a 49-day retention interval was used (Experiment 4). However, saccharin intake at asymptote reached the level of baseline water intake, and not the highly preferred level shown by never-conditioned controls. Results of all four experiments suggest that extinction does not return an averted taste to the status of an unconditioned one.     

SU(2)对称性自发破缺的强子气体模型

该文利用SU(2)非阿贝尔规范对称性研究了强子气体中标量和矢量介子相互作用模型。通过Higgs机制让SU(2)规范对称性发生自发破缺,矢量介子场将获得质量,并且通过引入ξ规范条件,使得强子气体模型具有规范不变性。该模型不仅自然地包含了矢量、标量介子场、电磁场之间的相互作用,而且还包含了规范固定项和Faddeev-Popov鬼场等非阿贝尔规范场效应。     

啤酒厂厌氧池(UASB)的调节与恢复

针对某啤酒厂污水处理过程中使用的升流式厌氧池(UASB)进行了调节与恢复,通过监测厌氧池的pH与COD等数据找出UASB反应器处理效果差的原因,然后对三相分离器、布水管等进行调整,并二次启动厌氧池,恢复了UASB反应器的处理功能.     

Teacher intention to transfer ICT training when integrating digital technologies in education: The teacher transfer of ICT training model (TeTra-ICT)

The aim of this study is to propose a new structural model for how teachers transfer their ICT training (TeTra-ICT), shedding light on the factors that tend to affect their intention to integrate digital technologies in educational practices as well as train their colleagues. The proposed model exploits training programme design characteristics and ICT-related individual factors. A total of 117 new ICT instructors for primary and secondary education teachers in Greece were evaluated. The instructors participated in a national Teacher Training Programme on applying ICT in education. Results indicate significant effects of individual (ICT-related self-efficacy in teaching) and programme design characteristics (platform's ease of use, support, content, and resources) on the teachers' final motivation and intention to transfer their ICT knowledge and skills. The model also reveals significant correlations between individual and training characteristics, the teachers' post-training self-efficacy for transferring skills and their perception of the usefulness of the training programme. The examined constructs explain 86% of the variance in teacher intentions to transfer their ICT knowledge and skills, and 72% of their perception of the usefulness of the training programme. Interestingly, while there were no gender differences in individual ICT-related characteristics, women expressed significantly higher values than men in their perception of the usefulness of training, self-efficacy, motivation, and intention to transfer.     

放大自发辐射宽带光源(ASE)谱特性FBG动态解调方法的研究

本文应用超磁致伸缩材料(GMM)构建FBG的电流传感探头,与ASE光源谱特性解调系统共同组成了交流电流测量系统,对50Hz的交流电流进行测量,并通过温度解调传感实验先对ASE光源谱特性解调进行了定标。通过实验标定ASE光源谱特性解调应变灵敏度系数,最终将交流电流形成的布拉格波长漂移量解调成交变的电压信号输出。该信号与输入电流信号相对应,并且包含了输入电流信号的幅值、频率和相位信息。从示波器测得的输入和输出信号的相似性表明,实验结果与理论分析是一致的,验证了ASE光源谱特性动态解调方法的可行性。     

Change in Myself-As-a-Learner Scale (MALS) scores as pupils transfer to and progress through secondary school

Longitudinal changes in pupils’ academic self-perception (as measured by Myself-As-a-Learner Scale [MALS]) were investigated between Year 6 and Year 10. The possibility of there being gender and attainment differences was also explored. There was a significant drop in mean MALS scores between Years 6 and 7. There was a further drop between Years 7 and 8 but this was small and not statistically significant. MALS scores remained largely stable between Years 7 and 10. Girls scored lower than boys on this measure and this difference reached significance in the Years 6 to 7 data. The results showed that higher attaining pupils (as measured by the Key Stage 2 levels in English, Maths and Science) had higher average MALS scores. Implications for the standardisation arrangements of the MALS test are discussed, with particular reference to the desirability to include norms to incorporate attainment, age and sex.     

In vivo inhibition and recovery of brain acetylcholinesterase in topmouth gudgeon (Pseudorasobora parva) following exposure to fenitrothion

Freshwater fish, topmouth gudgeon (Pseudorasobora parva), were pretreated with piperronyl butoxide (PBO) or triphenyl phosphate (TPP) and then exposed to different concentrations of fenitrothion (FNT) in a static system. Evaluation of brain acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity after 24, 48 and 96 h pesticide exposure indicated that AchE activity decreased as the concentration increased. Fish pretreated with TPP exhibited significantly decreased AchE activity whilst in the PBO pretreated group, increased activity was observed as compared with those exposed to FNT alone. The pattern of AchE recovery was also assessed in fish previously exposed for 96h and then transferred to clean (chemical free) water. Following 8 days of recovery period, the AchE activity of those exposed to FNT alone and pretreated with TPP was still lower than that of the control. This study showed that FNT may cause hazard to fish after field application.     

Spontaneous alternation behavior in Paramecium

Spontaneous alternating behavior (SAB), the tendency of an organism to successively turn left and right in a maze, is a standard metric of short-term memory in developmental and pyschopharmacological studies. Although SAB is perhaps the most phylogenetically widespread behavior in motile lifeforms, conflicting data on SAB exist for several sets of closely related taxa. For example, previous studies provide contradictory evidence concerning the existence of spontaneous alternation behavior in the protozoanParamecium. However, these studies tested different species, using very different experimental designs. Using a single, factorial design for both previously tested species,P. multimicronucleatum andP. caudatum, we found that, in fact, the two species do not differ in their alternation behavior; specifically, they alternate in mazes with short tracks, but not in mazes with long tracks. These results are in accord with alternation studies on other taxa, and they fully resolve the apparent contradictions in the earlier studies onParamecium. They also indicate that caution should be used in interpreting variable results across species tested with different experimental designs and suggest that, in at least some taxa, SAB may not be strictly dependent on the use of short-term memory.     

Spontaneous Reasoning in Elementary Dynamics

Summaries

English

The scope of this study was to explore and analyse spontaneous reasoning of students in elementary dynamics, from the last year at secondary school to the third year at University.

A set of investigations involving several hundred students (mainly French, but also British and Belgian) showed surprising rates of wrong, or right, answers, which are very stable from one sample of students to another. It seems difficult to attribute these results solely to school learning. But they can be reasonably well accounted for if we assume a spontaneous explanatory system, relatively unaffected by school learning.

In particular, students seem to use in their reasoning two different notions of dynamics, usually designated by the same word: ‘force’. To detect which of these two notions has, in fact, been used, one must look at their properties: one of these ‘forces’ is associated with the velocity of a motion whilst the other one is associated with its acceleration. Likewise, the part played by energy in these two notions is distinctly different.

It is possible to set up, and roughly classify, the types of questions which give rise to each notion in spontaneous reasoning. This model, where inertial forces are also included, makes it possible, with a minimum of hypothesis, to account for answers on a wide range of topics, such as: free fall, oscillating systems, ‘accelerated’ frames of references, third law of dynamics.

More generally: when confronted with a physical system, students may first consider the system as it is, with its geometrical and physical characteristics at time t, or consider mainly the evolution of the system, and look for a causal explanation. While compatible in Newtonian formalism, these viewpoints lead students more often to right answers in the first case than in the second one, the explanation being then often confused with quasi‐animistic arguments, and loosely located in time.

Some teaching consequences can be drawn from these investigations. Some of them, of a relatively technical nature, follow more or less directly from the wrong answers reported here. But the most important one concerns the very principle of these investigations: they provide an opportunity for the students involved to make an extremely useful self‐analysis and to learn to distinguish between learned formalism and spontaneous reasoning and, consequently, to master both of them somewhat better.     

我国自发性群众体育组织研究概论

采用文献资料法收集了2004年以来我国自发性群众体育组织的相关研究资料,从文献的数量、研究内容、研究方法及研究的成果等方面进行客观的分析。认为目前体育研究中对自发性群众体育组织的研究较少,研究的局限性较大,特别是缺乏具有现实指导意义的研究成果。指出今后在对自发性群众体育组织的研究中,应注重对其内部规律、形成过程及发展机制的深层探索。