Protective factors promoting resilience in the relation between child sexual victimization and internalizing and externalizing symptoms

Sexual victimization has been one of the most frequently studied forms of child victimization. Its effects are common and diverse; however, not all children and youth exposed to sexual victimization eventually develop adjustment problems. A total of 1105 children and youth (590 male and 515 female) aged between 12 and 17 from northeastern Spain were assessed regarding their experiences of sexual victimization, symptoms of psychopathology, and protective factors. The results showed that all forms of sexual victimization were associated with higher levels of emotional and behavioral problems. However, the presence of a low Negative Cognition, high Social Skills and high Confidence seem to act buffering internalizing problems. Additionally, a significant interaction between Sexual Victimization and low Negative Cognition was observed (p < 0.5), so that, low Negative Cognition was related to a lower risk of being in the clinical range for internalizing problems. Likewise, high scores on Empathy/Tolerance, Connectedness to School, Connectedness to Family and low Negative Cognition acted as promotive factors in relation to externalizing symptoms, in this case without any interaction effect. The strong relationship found with emotional and behavioral problems highlights the importance of continuing the research on the protective factors underlying resilience in the relationship between sexual victimization and psychopathological symptoms. The findings also support the multi-dimensional and specific nature of resilience and identify some of the protective factors that should be regarded as key intervention targets in adolescents with a history of sexual victimization.     

Trajectories of peer victimization and perceptions of the self and schoolmates: precursors to internalizing and externalizing problems

Evidence indicates that peer victimization is predictive of later maladjustment, but the mechanisms by which harassment impairs development have yet to be identified. The objectives of this study were (a) to discern normative trends in peer victimization experiences and self- and peer perceptions during preadolescence and (b) to investigate associations between individual differences in these trajectories and changes in psychosocial adjustment. A sample of 381 children (196 girls; 185 boys) was followed longitudinally between the ages of 9 and 11 years. Latent growth curve analyses revealed that, although children's self-appraisals became increasingly positive during preadolescence, their appraisals of peers became more negative. Moreover, analyses supported the contention that self- and peer beliefs act as mechanisms through which victimization is related to psychological dysfunction.     

Reciprocal influences between stressful life events and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems

Investigated in this study were hypothesized reciprocal influences between stressful life events and adolescent maladjustment using data from a 6-year, prospective longitudinal study. Stressful life experiences, internalizing symptoms, and externalizing behaviors were assessed for a sample of adolescents (215 males, 236 females) living in the rural Midwest. From 7th to 12th grades, autoregressive analyses showed that stressful life events and these two forms of maladjustment were reciprocally interrelated over time. For example, stressful life events at one point significantly predicted delinquent behaviors 1 year later, which, in turn, significantly predicted stressful life events 1 year later, and vice versa. The findings provide evidence for the accumulating disadvantage for adolescents that results from the mutual reinforcement of problematic situations and adjustment problems over time.     

Peer priorities and the impact of academic achievement

The relationship between level of academic achievement and student self-concept was investigated. Based upon recent hypotheses concerning sex differences in the priority of academic accomplishments, it was predicted that the self-concept of older males and younger females would be most strongly influenced by the level of academic competence. This hypothesis was supported only for the male group. It was argued that younger males rather than older females were most debilitated by sex-role stereotypes.     

Examining the self-congruent engagement hypothesis: the link between academic self-schemas,motivational goals,learning approaches and achievement within an academic year

Academic self-schemas are important cognitive frames capable of guiding students’ learning engagement. Using a cohort of Year 10 Australian students, this longitudinal study examined the self-congruence engagement hypothesis which maintains that there is a close relationship among academic self-schemas, achievement goals, learning approaches, learning attitudes and achievement levels in learning mathematics. Students completed a survey and attempted an achievement test at the beginning and close to the end of the academic year. Two hypotheses in relation to the notion of self-engagement congruence were examined. The first hypothesis assumes that students holding a specific academic self-schema will maintain a pattern of engagement and achievement congruent with their specific self-conception over time. The second hypothesis postulates that a change in academic self-schemas will be associated with a corresponding shift in students’ engagement and achievement patterns. Cluster analyses provided clear evidence supporting these two hypotheses.     

Student-teacher relationship and classroom goal structure profiles: Promoting achievement and preventing externalizing and internalizing behaviors

This study investigates which profiles, defined based on students reports of student-teacher relationships (closeness; conflict) and classroom goal structures (mastery; performance), were optimal to support adjustment (externalizing and internalizing behaviors) and achievement in Math and Language. Elementary students (Grades 3–6, N = 703) and their teachers (N = 33) completed questionnaires in November 2011 and April 2012. Latent profile analysis identified four profiles, replicated across boys and girls: Average (44.46%), Mastery-Closeness (39.13%), Conflict (6.49%), and Approach-Closeness (9.92%). Students from the Conflict profile displayed more externalizing and internalizing behaviors than other students, whereas those from the Mastery-Closeness and Approach-Closeness profiles displayed the least difficulties. Students from the Approach-Closeness profile displayed the lowest achievement at the beginning of the year but the steepest increase over time.     

Factors influencing the academic achievement of the Turkish urban poor

This study estimates the individual and combined effects of selected family, student and school characteristics on the academic achievement of poor, urban primary-school students in the Turkish context. Participants of the study consisted of 719 sixth, seventh, and eighth grade primary-school students from 23 schools in inner and outer city squatter settlements. The findings indicated that the set of variables comprising student characteristics, including well-being at school, scholastic activities and support, explained the largest amount of variance in academic achievement among the urban poor. Although the effect sizes are small, family background characteristics and school quality indicators were also found to be significantly related to academic achievement. The implications of this study for improving primary schools in urban poor neighborhoods are discussed.     

Associations between adolescent experiences of violence in Malawi and gender-based attitudes,internalizing, and externalizing behaviors

Little is known about adolescent exposure to and factors associated with violence in Malawi. The aim of this research was to describe the prevalence of exposure to violence among adolescents in Malawi, and test the hypotheses that such exposures are associated with gender-based violent attitudes, and with internalizing and externalizing problems. In 2014, 561 primary school pupils were interviewed (50% girls), and logistic regression analysis was performed on gender-stratified data, adjusting for sociodemographic differences. Both girls and boys had witnessed domestic violence (28.5% & 29.6%), experienced emotional abuse at home (23.1% & 22.9%), physical abuse at home (28.1% & 30.4%), physical abuse at school (42.4% & 36.4%), and been bullied (33.8% & 39.6%). Among girls, internalized violent attitudes towards women were associated with emotional abuse at home (OR 2.1) and physical abuse at school (OR 1.7). Condoning rape was associated with physical abuse at school (OR 1.9). Bullying perpetration was associated with emotional abuse at home (OR 4.5). Depression was associated with emotional abuse at home (OR 3.8) and physical abuse at school (OR 2.4). Among boys, violent attitudes towards women and condoning rape were not associated with violence exposure. Bullying perpetration was associated with having been a victim of bullying (OR 2.9) and physical abuse at school (OR 2.7). Depression was associated with emotional abuse at home (OR 2.9), domestic violence (OR 2.4) and physical abuse at school (OR 2.5). These findings can inform programs designed to reduce violence victimization among Malawian girls, both in homes and schools.     

Parents do matter: trajectories of change in externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence

This study examined the relative influence of three parenting behaviors (support, behavioral control, and psychological control) and deviant peers on trajectories of externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence. A white, working-to-middle-class sample of adolescents and their mothers and fathers in two-earner families participated in a 32-year longitudinal study (N = 109 families). The study began when the adolescents were in sixth grade (M age = 11.5 years). Analyses showed that parents' firm behavioral control seemed to halt the upward trajectory in externalizing problems among adolescents with deviant peers. Initial levels of internalizing problems were higher among adolescents with parents who reported lower levels of behavioral control and among adolescents with deviant peers. This study suggests that parenting exerts an important influence in adolescents' lives and may do so even in the face of potentially negative peer influence.     

Examining the link between preschool social-emotional competence and first grade academic achievement: The role of attention skills

Recently, research has begun to identify cognitive and social-emotional predictors of early academic success. Yet few studies have examined the mechanisms by which children's social-emotional skills are associated with later academic success. The present study examines the associations between preschool emotion knowledge, kindergarten attention skills, and first grade academic competence in a sample of mostly disadvantaged children. Results indicate that attention during kindergarten is a significant mediator of this association, even after accounting for the effects of maternal education, family income, and children's age, sex, and receptive vocabulary skills. The findings provide further support for the implementation of preventive curricula that focus on both social and emotional development as well as attentional development as one strategy for improving future academic success in young children.     

The relationship between cognitive style and academic achievement

Field independent students are generally expected to perform better academically than those who are field dependent, and this is particularly marked in distance learning where students learn without the traditional support offered in conventional instruction. In this paper two studies of the relationship between field dependence and academic learning in the context of distance learning are reported with Bachelor of Health nursing students in Hong Kong. In both studies field independent nurses performed significantly better than field dependent ones. Some implications of these findings for distance learning are discussed.     

The cycle of victimization: The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent peer victimization

Child maltreatment has been demonstrated to have many short- and long-term harmful consequences for victims, but whether or not child abuse is associated with an increased risk of peer victimization during adolescence is unclear. This study analyzed prospective data from 831 children and parents participating in the Longitudinal Studies on Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) to investigate the relationships between child physical and sexual abuse and adolescent victimization by peers, as well as the potential for gender to moderate these relationships. Results from ordinal logit regression models indicated that children who were physically abused prior to age 12, based on official reports, parent reports, and child reports, had a greater risk of experiencing more intimidation and physical assault by peers at age 16. Having a history of sexual abuse predicted more physical assault but not intimidation. There was no evidence that gender moderated these relationships; in all cases, the relationship between abuse and revictimization was similar for boys and girls. The findings emphasize the need to provide victims of abuse with assistance to help prevent a cycle of victimization.     

The interplay between academic emotions,psychological flexibility and self-regulation as predictors of academic achievement

Research concerning students’ emotions as well as their way of coping with their emotions in different situations has been scarce. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between self-regulated learning, academic emotions, psychological flexibility, study success and study pace during university-level studies. A total of 274 arts students participated in this study. Academic emotions were first explored with factor analyses, parallel analysis and confirmatory factor analyses. The relationship between self-regulated learning, psychological flexibility, academic emotions and study success and study pace was analysed using Pearson’s correlations and path analysis using Amos. The results revealed that there is a strong connection between self-regulated learning and academic emotions and that students’ self-regulations appear to affect students’ emotions with regard to their academic study. Furthermore, psychological flexibility appeared to be an important mediator between academic emotions and study pace. The study suggests that students’ emotions and their way of coping with these emotions should be taken into account when considering learning and teaching.     

Metacognition, achievement goals, study strategies and academic achievement: pathways to achievement

The purpose of this research was to develop and test a model of effective self-regulated learning. Based on effort expenditure we discerned effective self-regulators and less effective self-regulators. The model comprised achievement goals (mastery, performance-approach and -avoidance goals), metacognition (metacognitive knowledge, regulation and experience), study strategies (metacognitive, deep cognitive, surface cognitive and resource management strategies) and academic achievement. The relationships in the model were tested with controlling for intellectual ability, gender and age. The results showed that effective self-regulated learning involved two pathways: a metacognitive and a strategy pathway. The first pathway involved a positive relationship of mastery goals and a negative relationship of performance-avoidance goals with metacognition. Metacognition positively affected the use of the four study strategies. The strategy pathway involved positive effects of mastery and performance-approach goals on the use of metacognitive and deep cognitive strategies. Further, performance-approach goals positively affected the use of surface cognitive and resource management strategies. The use of metacognitive and resource management strategies had a positive and the use of surface cognitive strategies had a negative effect on exam scores.     

Relations between early family risk, children's behavioral regulation, and academic achievement

This study examined relations among early family risk, children's behavioral regulation at 54 months and kindergarten, and academic achievement in first grade using data on 1,298 children from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Family risk was indexed by ethnic minority status, low maternal education, low average family income from 1 - 54 months, and high maternal depressive symptoms from 1 - 54 months. Results of structural equation modeling indicated that minority status, low maternal education, and low family income had significant negative effects on reading, math, and vocabulary achievement in first grade. Modest indirect effects were also found from ethnicity, maternal education, and maternal depressive symptoms, through 54-month and kindergarten behavioral regulation to first-grade achievement. Discussion focuses on the importance of behavioral regulation for school success especially for children facing early risk.     

Self-concepts,academic achievement,and teacher's rating

One hundred ninety-eight pupils from fourth, fifth, and sixth grades were studied to determine the relationship between children's self-concept, academic achievement, and teacher's rating of children's self-concept. The differences between grade levels, sex, and ethnic group membership were tested by analysis of variance. Significant correlations were found between child's self-concept and teacher's rating of child's self-concept, and between teacher's rating of child's self-concept and child's academic achievement. Significant ethnic group differences were found in self-concept, academic achievement, and teacher's rating of self-concept in this study, with interethnic groups showing the higher scores.