The meaning of curriculum-related examination standards in Scotland and England: a home–international comparison

Abstract

The ways in which examination standards are conceptualised and operationalised differently across nations has not been given sufficient attention. The international literature on standard-setting has been dominated by the psychometrics tradition. Broader conceptualisations of examination standards have been discussed in the literature in England, which has curriculum-related examinations at the end of schooling. There has, however, been little analysis of conceptualisations of examination standards in Scotland. Different education systems and examinations operate in Scotland and England, and the stated value positions and processes relating to examination standards differ markedly. This paper critically examines policy positions on assessment standards in Scotland and England through the lens of recent theories of standard-setting. By analysing public statements on standards, the paper illuminates similarities and differences in conceptual bases and operational approaches, and examines the effects of these on outcomes for candidates. We conclude that both systems are operationalising attainment-referencing, but with different processes in Scotland and England and these practices do not fit within previous examination standards classifications. As such, the paper moves examination standards theory forward by concluding that there is at least one superordinate definitional category that draws upon more than one definitional stance.     

‘To Give an Example is a Complex Act’: Agamben’s pedagogy of the paradigm

Abstract

Agamben’s notion of the ‘paradigm’ has far-reaching implications for educational thinking, curriculum design and pedagogical conduct. In his approach, examples—or paradigms—deeply engage our powers of analogy, enabling us to discern previously unseen affinities among singular objects by stepping outside established systems of classification. In this way we come to envision novel groupings, new patterns of connection—that nonetheless do not simply reassemble those singular objects into yet another rigidly fixed set or class. Agamben sees this sort of ‘paradigmatic understanding’ as our richest source of intelligibility. For Agamben the paradigm is ultimately about learning to see again, starting not with already perfectly known and categorized objects (or ideas), but rather with a fresh experience of one individual object and the analogical relations it may have to others, and to novel groupings that may arise. The paradigm is a method, a way in which educators might respond to a wide range of educational challenges. For a paradigmatic relation suspends while exposing, deactivates while revealing, complicates while clarifying. But articulating the enigmatic paradigmatic relation between example and class is far more than a method. It is epistemological (a way of knowing and conception of knowledge), ethical (a fostering of freedom from presupposed categories and reified principles) and ontological (a type of being that exposes the potential of knowing and communicating—their intelligibility and communicability). In these qualities, paradigms exhibit to educators a free, a new use of singularities.     

Empowering Social Work Faculty

ABSTRACT

Based upon the emergence of alternative paradigms both inside and outside of social work education, four paradigms representing the most traditional to the most radical are presented. Each paradigm is discussed in terms of its ontological and epistemological assumptions as well as other pedagogical issues including role of the teacher, methods of evaluation and course structure. Educators are urged to use these paradigms to better understand legitimate differences between faculty, to become more conscious and deliberate in their choice of methods, to identify areas of incongruence, and to push themselves and the profession towards philosophies and methods most congruent with social work values an ethics.     

The Multitasking Reality of the Parenting Brain

SYNOPSIS

Ecologically valid experimental paradigms are critical if we are to identify meaningful behavioral and neural substrates of parental responsiveness to infant cues. In this commentary, we discuss how Rigo et al. (2019) in their fMRI study of responses to infant cues make advances toward developing a paradigm that better mimics real-world parenting demands. In contrast to the standard infant cue paradigm, Rigo and colleagues exposed participants to infant sounds while engaged in competing goal-directed demands – multitasking. Although several central hypotheses were not confirmed, we hold that the use of ecologically improved paradigms is a necessary step toward understanding the multitasking reality of the parenting brain.     

Establishing and applying performance standards for curriculum-based examinations

This paper describes how a state education system in Australia introduced standards-referenced assessments into its large-scale, high-stakes, curriculum-based examinations in a way that enables comparison of performance across time even though the examinations are different each year. It describes the multi-stage modified Angoff standard-setting procedure used to establish cut-off scores on subject examinations, and how the results from this exercise were then used to develop standards packages. These packages illustrate the performances of students at the borders between the various bands.

The paper also shows how originally it was intended to use a Rasch measurement model to create the statistical feedback used in the standard-setting procedure. It also describes the modifications to the feedback that were necessary to meet the real-time constraints of this large-scale examination programme. It argues that consideration should now be given to using the Rasch model to provide this feedback instead of the current approach.     

范式的不可通约与整体突现

库恩在《科学革命的结构》中讨论新发现和新理论的突现,用格式塔转换类比范式转变,认为范式转变后科学问题,解答标准和词项的意义都发生变化,科学家在不同的世界工作,范式不可通约。后期库恩较少谈论突现。就他思想整体范围来看,库恩持一种范式的整体突现观。     

Contesting educational assessment policies in Australia

ABSTRACT

Assessment is a major component of education, significant in directing what is identified as valued student learning. This paper is framed within an understanding of imperative and exhortative policy. Two paradigmatically different, and potentially contesting, assessment policy directions in Australian education – educational accountability to monitor school and teacher performance, and teacher assessment practices to improve learning (assessment for learning [AfL] or formative assessment) – are examined for their impact on teacher professionalism. Both approaches have official endorsement in Australian policy. Mandated participation in national tests is indicative of educational accountability assessments under national direction. While also endorsed nationally, AfL implementation is reliant on state and territory direction. Our examination reveals tensions in the alignment of both policies. This is evident in the impact of accountability assessment on AfL implementation, in particular, teachers’ understandings of valued assessment evidence. We conclude that a paradigmatic shift to support student learning in Australian schools is a policy imperative that includes the need for professional development and learning support for teachers.     

Research paradigms and adult education

Those who see research as structured by ‘paradigms’ of inquiry are often unclear about the precise nature of these paradigms due to the complexity of the concept. It is argued that there are competing understandings of paradigm, not simply different substantive paradigms. A ‘strong’ or socio‐historical account associated with Kuhn's work is contrasted with a ‘weak’ or philosophical account of paradigm that has become influential in educational circles. This analysis is applied to adult education as an academic field, which in terms of the ‘strong’ account of paradigm is not a unified scholarly enterprise but one animated by divergent, institutionalised research traditions. Three traditions are discussed in detail: participation studies, adult learning theory and participatory research. It is concluded that the field will be advanced by recognising the paradigmatic depth of its scholarly conflicts, and relating these differences to developments in other fields of human inquiry.     

Comparisons of ‘Education Reform’ in Britain and the USA: a new era?

ABSTRACT

This paper compares and contrasts the origins, objectives and outcomes of the New Right education reform movements in Britain and the USA. It considers whether the education reforms will create a new era for schools, in terms of diversity of public and private provision and social, sexual and racial differentiation. This is despite the emphasis on quality or excellence in education as opposed to equality of educational opportunity. The origins of the reform movements are to be found in both the politics and economic developments of the ‘social democratic’ or ‘liberal’ bipartisan political consensus. The objectives of the reforms are to deal with declining international competitiveness and the raising of educational standards through consumer or parental choice. The outcomes are likely not to be a general raising of standards but rather a bifurcation in terms of a complex mix of class, race and gender.     

Reforming Technical and Technological Education

ABSTRACT

This paper examines selected reform efforts in technical and technological education from a comparative perspective. The similarities and differences between reforms in selected countries – Brazil, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden – are analysed to determine major world‐wide trends. Lessons are drawn which should be useful for nations contemplating reform of their education and training systems. Particular attention is focussed on the time taken to complete reforms effectively and the need for long‐term approaches, relationships between educational reforms and industrial development, the interdependence of reforms affecting general, technical and vocational education, regional co‐operation and the decentralisation of national decision‐making.     

Positivist and constructivist persuasions in instructional development

Constructivism has been an influential theoretical persuasion in recent years in the field of instructional design and development. Yet the theoretical tenets and applications of constructivism in instructional development (ID) have been often discussed outside the context of the long-standing paradigmatic pursuits from which constructivism stems. Efforts to continue an intellectual journey, exploring how different theoretical bases lead to different implications for ID, must be based on a clear understanding of different paradigms. Hence, constructivism is discussed here in the context of the underlying paradigm debate involving the old positivist paradigm and the new constructivist paradigm. This article explores how these different paradigms have shaped different theories and practices in ID. Specifically, three versions of constructivism and how they have influenced ID are critically examined. Finally, it is recommended that the two paradigms, positivism and constructivism, can be applied in a complementary way in ID.     

The development of first year physics students' ideas about measurement in terms of point and set paradigms

The ideas of first year university students about measurement in the physics laboratory are explored. Student responses to written probes administered at the beginning of the year are compared to those written after a 12 week laboratory course. The 'point' and 'set' paradigms are used as a model to analyse the responses to the probes. At the heart of the point paradigm is that both action and reasoning are based solely on individual measurements in a data set. On the other hand, subscribing to the set paradigm implies an understanding that a series of measurements are to be viewed as a collective that can be modelled by theoretical constructs, such as the mean and standard deviation. The degree of consistent use of these paradigms by individual students across the sets of probes is investigated. Implications for effective teaching interventions in the physics laboratory are discussed.     

Three views of fairness in a school-based assessment scheme of practical work in biology

This interpretive study of the implementation of a school-based assessment scheme of biology practical work in Hong Kong examines three teachers' struggles with the issue of fairness in relation to their classroom actions. Though the teachers' discourses were dominated by, and their classroom actions were pre-eminently influenced by, the notion of fairness, they did so in three qualitatively different ways: (1) fair in the sense of assessing students on a fair basis; (2) fair in the sense of not jeopardizing students' chances to learn the subject matter while they are being assessed; and (3) fair in the sense of not depriving students' of opportunities of receiving all-round education. The implication is that assessment innovation is a necessary, but not a sufficient, mechanism for changes within our educational system. The role of the teacher is challenged by the new assessment scheme?the co-existence of assessment and learning requires a significant change in the teacher's pedagogy. For teachers to implement the new programme their existing understanding and beliefs concerning assessment must be challenged and opportunities provided for them to come to terms with the philosophy of the new assessment scheme. Most importantly, the teachers themselves must undertake such a learning process.     

Standards of practice to standards of evidence: developing assessment capable teachers

Abstract

Teacher education is a hotly debated policy area in higher education and schooling portfolios, with increasing emphasis on standards and accountability. It is in this environment that The Standards Project (2013–2015) presented in this article began. It has at its core a three-part commitment: first, to undertake a comprehensive audit and analysis of all teacher education programmes in the state of Queensland, Australia, to establish the approaches and practices Universities relied on to preparing beginning teachers as assessment capable; second, to take account of multiple perspectives and approaches in initial teacher education to integrating data into how beginning teachers are prepared to source and use evidence for improving learning and teaching; and further, to develop new principles, policy and practices for reviewing and moderating teacher education programmes against professional standards. The paper proposes a move beyond the discourse of professional standards of practice towards a complementary discourse of standards of evidence. In our collaboration we drew on two fields, namely the writing on teacher education including reviews, and the field of assessment, both considered within broader sociocultural theory applied to assessment.     

Predicting Proficiency on Statewide Assessments: A Comparison of Curriculum-Based Measures in Middle School

ABSTRACT

A key tool in multitiered systems of support is the use of curriculum-based measures to predict which students are at risk for academic failure. However, there are few studies that examine which measures are most suitable for students in middle school. The authors examine the reliability of predicting outcomes on state assessments for 3 commonly used curriculum-based measures at the middle school level. Data were collected from a middle school in the Midwest that regularly administers 3 different curriculum-based measures. Reading Curriculum-Based Measure (R-CBM), Maze, and Multiple-Choice Reading Comprehension (MCRC) were given to students in Grades 7 (n = 238) and 8 (n = 256). Logistic regression was used to examine each measure in predicting outcomes on the Michigan Education Assessment Program Reading assessment. Results indicated that MCRC more accurately predicted outcomes than R-CBM or maze (Grade 7 e^β = 1.75, Grade 8 e^β = 1.68). Limitations and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Metaphors and the psychometric paradigm

ABSTRACT

This paper analyses the psychometric paradigm for understanding educational measurement and standard setting by considering the extent to which that understanding is based on metaphors. I argue that through the metaphors ‘more is up’ and ‘good is up’ we spatialise concepts that are not intrinsically spatial. Human abilities form a distinct conceptual category, with complex and varying rules for the correct usage of different ability terms. The fact that most abilities can be discussed in terms of both ‘possession’ and of ‘more or less’ invites reification, spatialisation, and hence the application of measurement metaphors. Insights into the measurement of abilities can be gained by careful consideration of how ability terms are used in normal discourse, especially of athletic abilities which are partly quantified in terms of attributes that are physically measureable. The fuzziness of natural language creates some of the problems in understanding standards in both psychometrics and physical measurement.     

Tensions and challenges in China’s education policy borrowing

Abstract

Background: This article critically discusses the key tensions and challenges arising from the educational policy borrowing in China, through its current education reform. Focussing on the new curriculum reform (NCR), the paper highlights the interactions and conflicts between foreign and local ideologies and practices.

Sources of evidence: The main sources of evidence that form the basis of the analysis for this article were research data from an open-ended questionnaire and semi-structured interviews conducted with 166 school principals, vice-principals and teachers from China between 2013 and 2015.

Main argument: It is argued that the NCR has borrowed selective ideas and practices from elsewhere, such as a school-based curriculum, student-centred pedagogy and formative assessment. It is further suggested that the borrowed policies are mediated and moderated by the ideological attitude of the Chinese educational stakeholders, stemming from the notion of ‘theory-ladenness’ within an exam-oriented paradigm.

Conclusions: The example of China illustrates the effects of an ideological attitude on educational policy borrowing that challenges the notion of universally appropriate ways of teaching, learning and reforming an educational system.     

Creativity,Curricula and Paradigms

What are the relations between creativity, curricula and paradigms? In this paper the historical development of major curriculum theories are interpreted in terms of their relation to creativity as a goal of organised learning. Further, the development is analysed by discussing the organising of learning for creativity from the viewpoints of different sociological paradigms. These represent mutually exclusive ways of understanding knowledge production and societal change. A synthesis of how schools try to reach creativity as a goal for organised learning, seen through the 'dark glasses' of curriculum traditions and paradigms, is presented. The paper ends with some concluding remarks regarding how creativity fits into a curriculum profile needed under the present level of economic globalisation.     

Durkheim Said What?: Creating Talking Textbooks With Augmented Reality and Project-Based Activities

Abstract

This study explored utilizing augmented reality (AR) and project-based learning (PBL) strategies to increase students’ understandings of sociological paradigms and the theorists’ motivations behind their development. Using a posttest-only quasi-experimental control group design with experimental intervention, three groups of students’ scores were compared on a post-unit assessment. The PBL-only group, the PBL-AR group, and a control group were also compared over time on the post-unit assessment, a quiz, and the midterm. PBL-AR students’ scores were higher on all three assessments. The project’s design, implementation, and findings are discussed, along with implications for future curricular redesign using novel tools and technologies.     

Pedagogy of Learning and Teaching: A Phenomenographic Perspective from Selected Classrooms in Rural South Africa

Abstract

Classroom practitioners are expected to facilitate effective learning under the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) in South Africa. During this facilitation process, educators are required to become more resourceful in terms of their learning and teaching strategies. This article is based on a case study – within the phenomenographic paradigm – of Grade 9 educators and learners in four rural schools in North West, South Africa. The study focussed on a specific economics and management sciences (EMS) topic relating to the understanding of the value or price determination of the South Africa rand on the foreign exchange market. The article is divided into three parts: firstly, the concepts of phenomenography and the variation theory of learning are explored and constituted as the conceptual framework; secondly, educators’ experiences with the variation theory as a classroom resource for learning; and thirdly, the impact of educators’ classroom experiences with the variation theory on learners’ quantitative and qualitative learning outcomes. The results showed an improvement in the learners’ understanding of the EMS topic studied.