从明清赋役制度变迁看宗族治理的内在逻辑

研究宗族组织的治理过程,可以增进对传统社会地方治理性质的理解。从明后期到清代,宗族在地方上发挥显著的治理作用,特别是在赋役治理过程中。大量文献阅释了这一历史过程,然而,既有的研究在有关宗族的性质以及宗族在治理过程中的意义方面存在分歧,特别是宗族是自发演化的血缘团体还是人为构建的宗法制,还有争议。为弥补相关研究的不足,有必要从明清赋役变革这一背景探讨宗族角色的转变及其发挥治理作用背后的激励约束机制,进一步探讨宗族性质以及宗族在地方社会治理过程中的意义。利用《徽州千年契约文书》所载资料考察相关主体对财产占有关系的认识以及赋役负担方式的看法,并从制度施行的视角探讨宗族宗法社会中财产占有的边界、赋役承担的原则、契约实施的效力,结果显示不仅仅是血缘,宗法观念认同在宗族治理过程中也发挥了重要的作用。由此,房长、绅士等群体作为皇权的代言人主导地方治理,宗法财产权制度强化,公共事务合作受限于宗法关系约束。     

论明清时期徽州宗族与国家的互动关系

明清时期的徽州宗族通过征收赋税、培养宗族子弟入仕、创办义田和义学等途径在一定程度上起到了加强宗族管理、维护宗族内部团结的作用。同时徽州宗族还对国家的政策和儒家伦理规范积极宣传,在宗族中进行宣讲和教化,按照国家政策管理徽州宗族社会,保持了徽州地区基层社会的长期稳定,这与国家希望地方基层社会保持稳定进而保证封建统治能够长期延续的目的有相契合之处,体现了明清时期徽州宗族与国家之间的良好互动关系。     

明清时期徽州宗族内部的社会秩序控制

从功能论的角度看,徽州宗族作为一种社会组织形态,发展至明清,对宗族内事务的管理与控制的功能有着日益强化的趋势。其中,对内部社会秩序进行积极的控制与调适即是这一时期徽州宗族作为社会自治主体和社会管理者角色扮演的重要体现。徽州宗族通过教化、调解、惩罚等方式,实现了对其内部社会秩序的有效控制,在一定程度上有利于维持明清时期徽州宗族社会的持续繁荣及社会秩序的长期稳定。     

明清时期休宁西门汪氏迁浙支派宗族意识的变化

休宁西门汪氏为徽州一望族,宗法观念极其浓厚.明末清初,西门汪氏汪可镇支迁居浙江嘉兴后,宗族意识却日渐淡漠,与本宗休宁西门汪氏形成鲜明对比.造成这种变化的原因,实与徽州、嘉兴两地的自然环境、社会信仰以及宗法观念的差异有关.     

明清社会贞节观念的强化及其实践——以明清徽州为中心的考察

在人类历史上,贞节观念有一个从无到有的形成与发展过程。自周以来,节妇烈女的绝对数呈增长趋势,宋代是个明显的界限,节烈妇女人数陡然增加,至明清而达到极致。明清社会,程朱理学居于主流意识形态地位,女性贞节观教育不断加强,女性节烈楷模产生广泛的示范效应。明清徽州,贞节观念正是通过以上诸种途径不断被加以强化,并得以普遍的实践。     

明清徽州妇女节烈行为的主观因素

明清贞节观念是中国历史上最强的时期,明清时期徽州节烈现象与其他地方相比,尤为突出。学者从不同的角度分析明清节烈风气特别是徽州妇女节烈现象形成的原因,但普遍忽略了一个问题,那就是明清徽州节烈妇女的主观因素。其主观因素主要表现在对贞节伦理的守护、对家庭责任的担当、对困窘生活的逃避以及留名传世的愿望等几个方面。明清徽州这种突出的节烈现象是贞节观念的强化,国家与徽州地方宗族所制定的各种相关制度和采取的措施,并结合女性自身的因素,共同产生的合力作用的结果。     

宗族控制与明清徽州的村落格局

对于明清时期的徽州村落来说,虽然它们的选址、布局和空间组织很多时候并不是出于审美考虑,但在自然山水与人文景观所共同营造的整体氛围中,其审美效果却是显而易见的。徽州人浓重的风水观念以及"聚族而居,绝无一杂姓搀入者"的文化习性,意外地成就了园林化的徽州村落这一审美的副产品。在徽州村落的空间格局背后,潜藏着的是无处不在的宗族制度与宗法观念的影响。     

清代祁门文堂陈氏祖塚纠纷案探析

本文梳理了清中后期祁门文堂陈氏祖塚纠纷案件始末,支派间的联合及矛盾。祁门文堂陈氏在坟产纠纷解决中采取了各种应对措施,如合祭、主动告官等。这些应对措施说明,虽明清以来,徽州宗族统治虽有不断削弱的迹象,但是祁门文堂陈氏宗族以坟产纠纷为契机,在清中后期迅速加强了宗族各支派间的联合,强化了宗族统治,当然在联宗的同时,支派间也存在矛盾。     

士绅阶层在徽州民间纠纷中的作用——以程瞳为中心

明清时期徽州宗族之间往往会因各种利益纷争而发生矛盾和冲突,当冲突发生时,士绅往往在纠纷解决中充当民间调解力量,并发挥重要的作用。他们一方面做好自我表率作用,另一方面积极运用道德的力量来调解矛盾。     

明清徽州宗族的恤族举措

明清时期,徽州宗族大多聚族而居,族内存在严重的贫困现象。为此,宗族内部采取了一系列的恤族之举,实施涉及怜孤恤寡、设立学田、义田等等。这些救济措施的实施增强了宗族凝聚力,维护了地方社会的安定,在一定程度上也有利于国家统治的巩固。     

Genotypic and environmental variation in cadmium, chromium, arsenic, nickel, and lead concentrations in rice grains

Genotypic and environmental variation in Cd, Cr, As, Ni and Pb concentrations of grains, and the relationships between these heavy metals and Fe, Zn were investigated using 9 rice genotypes grown in 6 locations for two successive years. Significant genotypic variation was detected in the five heavy metal concentrations in grains, indicating the possibility to reduce the concentration of these heavy metals in grains through breeding approach. The environmental effect varied with metal, with Pb and Ni having greater variation than the other three metals. There was significant genotype-environment （location） interaction of the concentrations of all five heavy metals in grains, suggesting the importance of cultivar choice in producing rice with low heavy metal concentrations in grains for a given location. Correlation analysis showed that Cd and As, Cr and Ni, and As and Pb concentrations in rice grains were closely associated, and that Ni concentration in grains was negatively correlated with Zn concentration.     

Metacognition and Self-Regulation in James,Piaget, and Vygotsky

This article investigates the intertwined constructs of metacognition and self-regulation as they emerge in the works and theories of James, Piaget, and Vygotsky. To coordinate this exploration, we use an interpretive framework based on the relation of subject and object. In this framework, James’s perspective on metacognition and self-regulation is aligned with the Self, Piaget’s with the other and object, and Vygotsky’s with the medium or agency of language. We explore how metacognition and self-regulation function within the realm of human behavior and development as described in the works of each of these theorists. Key questions or issues that emerge for current research are outlined, and the limitations and benefits of each theorist’s perspective vis-à-vis metacognition and self-regulation are discussed.     

Knowledge, Concepts, and Inferences in Childhood

The role of knowledge in children's inferences was investigated in 3 experiments. Experiment 1 examined developmental changes in the role of categorical membership, perceptual appearance, and item complexity in inferences for natural kind and artifact concepts. Preschoolers (5-year-olds), second graders (8-year-olds), and fourth graders (10-year-olds) were taught novel properties about target concepts and asked whether each of 4 probes had those properties. Probes varied in category membership and perceptual appearance relative to the target item. Item complexity also varied. Experiments 2 and 3 examined inferences with known and unknown concepts for familiar and unfamiliar properties. Older children's knowledge led to differential weighting of categorical information over appearance but only for known concepts and/or familiar properties. Preschoolers made no distinction between category and appearance for either known or unknown concepts. Additionally, as target item complexity increased, older children made more inferences than preschoolers. No differences between inferences about natural kind and artifact concepts were found. The role of theories and knowledge in children's drawing of inferences is discussed.     

Evil,virtue, and education in Kant

Abstract

For Kant, we cannot understand how to approach moral education without confronting the radical evil of humanity. But if we start out, as Kant thinks we do, from a morally corrupt state, how can we make moral progress? In response, I explore in this paper Kant’s gradualist and revolutionary accounts of moral progress. These differing accounts of progress raise two key questions in the literature: are these accounts compatible and which type of progress comes first? Against other views in the literature, I argue that gradual progress through a change of mores must come first and can gradually lead toward, as its ideal endpoint, a revolution in our disposition (or a change of heart) and the overthrowing of our radical evil. This has important implications for moral pedagogy.     

Risk,Safety, and Choice in Childbirth

In this column, the author explores current understandings of risk and safety in pregnancy and childbirth. An emphasis on risk management places the provider and hospital in control of women’s decisions related to pregnancy and birth and may make pregnancy and birth less safe for mothers and babies. Accepting that no life is risk free, women can let go of fear and make choices that take into account real, not imagined, or exaggerated risk and, in doing so, increase safety for themselves and their babies. The focus of maternity care becomes enhancing safety through evidence-based practice rather than managing risk.