The contingency rules theory of persuasion: An empirical test

The contingency rules theory of persuasion, as alternative to the traditional laws model, assumes that: (1) persuasive behaviors, including compliance‐gaining and responding activities, are governed antecedently by five varieties of self‐evaluative and adaptive behavioral contingency rules; and (2) the context where persuasive communicators interact determines the particular configuration of rules governing their persuasive choices. This research assessed the power of the proposed five‐part rule structure to predict subjects’ responses to messages as functions of the context variables, ego‐involvement, schematic complexity, and affective orientation toward a persuasive issue. Results supported the contingency rules model, in that a significant proportion of the variance in subjects’ behavioral intentions was explained by self‐evaluative and adaptive rules in each context examined in the research. Moreover, the particular mix of rules accounting for intended actions varied sharply as a function of subjects’ levels of ego‐involvement with the persuasive issues, the complexity of their cognitions regarding the issues, and their affective stances toward the issues. The advantages and limitations of the contingency rules theory vis‐a‐vis the laws paradigm are discussed.     

Ground rules for testing: Expectations and misunderstandings in test situations

Since young children have little experience in answering test questions, misunderstandings easily arise when they are subjected to tests. The experimenter wants to test the children, whereas they expect the experimenter to help them solve the problem. In an experiment the expectations of children about the interaction with the experimenter were influenced in a pre-task. In condition Exp:A (Expectation: Assistance) it was suggested that the experimenter would help the child. In condition Exp:T (Expectation: Test) children were made to expect that the experimenter would give no assistance. A third condition was a standard condition (S) without a pre-task. The experimental task was a conservation of number problem. The subjects in condition Exp:T performed significantly better than the children in the other conditions. It is concluded that unfamiliarity with the rules of testing contributes to children's poor results in this kind of experiment. Making explicit what is intended leads to better performances.     

Assessment in an era of accessibility: Evaluating rules for scripting audio representation of test items

Standardized, large-scale assessment of educational outcomes has become a global phenomenon over the past three decades (Smith, 2016 ). A key challenge facing assessment designers is that standard formats may be inaccessible or may create barriers to student performance. Schwanke, Smith, and Edyburn's ( 2001 ) A3 model describes how advocates have reacted to structural barriers by providing accommodations and, ultimately, accessibility. This paper synthesizes and evaluates three studies that attempted to improve accessibility in assessments for students who struggle with print reading through audio presentation of assessment items. Cross-study implications for policy and practice are considered.     

网络语体风格的软规范与硬规范

语言规划研究是一种战略研究。网络语体风格的规范问题是语言规划必不可少的部分，但却是一个很少有人触及的领域。网络语体风格的表现是进行网络语体风格规范的基础，在此基础上，主要讨论网络语体风格软规范和硬规范的基础、理据和基本策略问题。并认为，语言的规范都应该分成两个部分，即软规范和硬规范。     

Technical characteristics of the peabody individual achievement test as a function of item arrangement and basal and ceiling rules

The effects that item order and basal and ceiling rules have on test means, variances, and internal consistency estimates for the PIAT mathematics and reading recognition subtests were examined. Seven items on the math subtest and one item on the reading recognition subtest were significantly easier or harder than their test placement indicated. The use of basal and ceiling rules had a pronounced effect on the means, variances, and reliabilities on the multiple choice math subtest, while the rules' effects on the reading recognition subtests were minor. Item order also affected scores on the math subtest.     

A categorisation of school rules

The aim of this paper is to investigate and describe the content in school rules by developing a category system of school rules, and thus making the logic behind different types of rules in school explicit. Data were derived from an ethnographic study conducted in two primary schools in Sweden. In order to analyse the data, grounded theory methodology was adapted. The analysis resulted in a category system of school rules, containing the following main categories: (a) relational rules, (b) structuring rules, (c), protecting rules, (d), personal rules and (e) etiquette rules. In the light of this categorisation, more consciously pedagogical and professional work with rules can be conducted. The category system can counteract vagueness and unreasonableness, as well as highlighting the content, logic and functions of different school rules.     

Cognitive conflict and intuitive rules

This paper is a part of an extensive project on the role of intuitive rules in science and mathematics education. First, we described the effects of two intuitive rules ‐‐ ‘Everything comes to an end’ and ‘Everything can be divided’ ‐‐ on seventh to twelfth grade students’ responses to successive division tasks related to mathematical and physical objects. Then, we studied the effect of an intervention, which provided students with two contradictory statements, one in line with students’ intuitive response, the other contradicting it, on their responses to various successive division tasks. It was found that this conflict‐based intervention did not improve students’ ability to differentiate between successive division processes related to mathematical objects and those related to material ones. These results reconfirmed that intuitive rules are stable and resistant to change. Finally, this paper raised the need for additional research related to the relationship between intuitive rules and formal knowledge.     

论竞技运动的规律

竞技运动规律具有客观性和隐蔽性,它隐藏在竞技运动内部是在竞技运动中形成制胜理念的关键,因此探索竞技运动规律对于在竞技中取得优异成绩具有推进作用。本片文章先介绍了竞技运动在发展过程中的平衡性规律,从系统和动态两个方面介绍分析其平衡性;然后介绍比赛过程中的非平衡性规律,从人员参与和攻守变化两方面进行分析;再介绍取得竞技胜利的制胜规律;最后从对抗、心理、战术等方面介绍竞技赛场上的无序规律,为以后对竞技运动规律的研究提供参考。     

Formal rules and rules as reasoning-in-action: playing games with reality in science education

Bonne and Higgins (2022) explore game playing and fluctuations in emotional climate at a classroom level of analysis using a social and phenomenological orientation. My aim in this forum paper is to extend upon their work by exploring the nature of both formal game rules and practical game rules as reasoning-in-action where science reasoning may be embedded. Rules as reasoning-in-action are considered from the perspective of studies of ethnomethods, which are the interactional methods people use in everyday situations to make sense of social reality. I apply these ideas to compare gamification of science learning with learning through authentic science practices by discussing similarities and differences in the way we might regard reality in game play and the application of emotions to the design of learning contexts. I suggest the need for future research to embed gamification more routinely in science teacher education, including raised awareness about emotions and aesthetics in learning science.

     

Item-writing rules: Collective wisdom

In student assessment, teachers place the greatest weight on tests they have constructed themselves and have an equally great interest in the quality of those tests. To increase the validity of teacher-made tests, many item-writing rules-of-thumb are available in the literature, but few rules have been tested experimentally. In light of the paucity of empirical studies, the validity of any given guideline might best be established by relying on experts. This study analyzed twenty classroom assessment textbooks to identify a consensus list of item-writing rules. Forty rules for which there was agreement among textbook authors are presented. The rules address four different validity concerns—potentially confusing wording or ambiguous requirements, the problem of guessing, test-taking efficiency, and controlling for testwiseness.     

服务语言的使用原则

作为工作用语的服务语言,在客我交往活动中,必须表现出明确的服务目的性,因而有别于人们日常的交际语言.从业人员使用服务语言,符合规范性,保持文明礼貌,并与语境相适应,必须进行严格的自我调整和控制.     

Long-term effects of school-starting-age rules

To study the long-term effects of school-starting-age rules in a setting with early ability tracking, we exploit the birth month threshold used in the Netherlands. We find that students born just after the threshold perform better at the end of primary school than students born just before it. This translates into increased placement in high ability tracks in secondary education. This difference diminishes gradually during subsequent stages, and we find no effect on the highest attained educational level. Those born just before the threshold enter the labor market somewhat younger and have therefore more labor market experience and higher earnings at any age until 40. We conclude that early ability tracking does not harm long-term outcomes of children who were, for exogenous reasons, placed in a lower track.     

The rules of the game

This response to Rachel Muehrer, Jennifer Jenson, Jeremy Friedberg and Nicole Husain??s paper, Challenges and opportunities: Using a science-based video game in secondary school settings, explores the issues encountered while a science-based video game is introduced in secondary school settings. It highlights the importance of the context, the availability of technologies, the skilfulness of the teachers and readiness of the students for a more successful use of games in schools. In addition, the definition of student engagement is also further discussed.     

更新本体与一般规则(英文)

为了消除出现在本体与一般规则整合过程中产生的不一致或冲突, 引入优先和更新技术. 首先, 通过给信息赋予权值的方法得到一个带偏序的知识库. 再根据"废旧迎新"原则, 设定所有规则的权值大于本体中信息的权值. 当本体与一致规则发生不一致或冲突时, 权值大的规则将更新替换本体中权值小的信息, 从而得到一个没有冲突的知识库. 然后, 调用现有逻辑程序求解器与描述逻辑推理机来实现查询等推理任务. 与采用非标准的语义表示信息来处理不一致方法相比, 基于偏序的更新技术更适合于动态进化的知识库. 同时, 通过赋值可以使新来的信息替换已经过时的信息,从而使得知识库在动态进化过程中保持一致性. 最后, 通过实例说明该处理不一致方法是切实可行的.