An electrohydrodynamic flow in ac electrowetting

In ac electrowetting, hydrodynamic flows occur within a droplet. Two distinct flow patterns were observed, depending on the frequency of the applied electrical signal. The flow at low-frequency range was explained in terms of shape oscillation and a steady streaming process in conjunction with contact line oscillation. The origin of the flow at high-frequency range has not yet been explained. We suggest that the high-frequency flow originated mainly from the electrothermal effect, in which electrical charge is generated due to the gradient of electrical conductivity and permittivity, which is induced by the Joule heating of fluid medium. To support our argument, we analyzed the flow field numerically while considering the electrical body force generated by the electrothermal effect. We visualized the flow pattern and measured the flow velocity inside the droplet. The numerical results show qualitative agreement with experimental results with respect to electric field and frequency dependence of flow velocity. The effects of induced-charge electro-osmosis, natural convection, and the Marangoni flow are discussed.     

Dielectrophoretic capture voltage spectrum for measurement of dielectric properties and separation of cancer cells

In this paper, a new dielectrophoresis (DEP) method based on capture voltage spectrum is proposed for measuring dielectric properties of biological cells. The capture voltage spectrum can be obtained from the balance of dielectrophoretic force and Stokes drag force acting on the cell in a microfluidic device with fluid flow and strip electrodes. The method was demonstrated with the measurement of dielectric properties of human colon cancer cells (HT-29 cells). From the capture voltage spectrum, the real part of Clausius-Mossotti factor of HT-29 cells for different frequencies of applied electric field was obtained. The dielectric properties of cell interior and plasma membrane were then estimated by using single-shell dielectric model. The cell interior permittivity and conductivity were found to be insensitive to changes in the conductivity of the medium in which the cells are suspended, but the measured permittivity and conductivity of cell membrane were found to increase with the increase of medium conductivity. In addition, the measurement of capture voltage spectrum was found to be useful in providing the optimum operating conditions for separating HT-29 cells from other cells (such as red blood cells) using dielectrophoresis.     

液固两相槽道流中柱状粒子取向的数值研究

对柱状粒子在槽道流场内的运动进行数值模拟，然后用统计方法得出大量柱状粒子的取向分布；给出了粒子长径比、粒子密度和流场区域对粒子取向分布的影响．计算结果表明，柱状粒子长径比的变化对粒子取向分布的影响不明显，粒子密度对粒子取向分布有一定影响，而流场区域所造成的流场横向速度梯度对粒子取向分布有重要影响．随着流场横向速度梯度增大，粒子取向趋势愈加明显，且当流场横向速度梯度增大到一定程度时，粒子取向都趋向于流动方向．文中部分结果与相关实验进行了比较，两者定性吻合较好。     

Three-dimensional cellular focusing utilizing a combination of insulator-based and metallic dielectrophoresis

Particle focusing in microfluidic devices is a necessary step in medical applications, such as detection, sorting, counting, and flow cytometry. This study proposes a microdevice that combines insulator-based and metal-electrode dielectrophoresis for the three-dimensional focusing of biological cells. Four insulating structures, which form an X pattern, are employed to confine the electric field in a conducting solution, thereby creating localized field minima in the microchannel. These electrodes, 56-μm-wide at the top and bottom surfaces, are connected to one electric pole of the power source. The electrodes connected to the opposite pole, which are at the sides of the microchannel, have one of three patterns: planar, dual-planar, or three-dimensional. Therefore, low-electric-field regions at the center of the microchannel are generated to restrain the viable HeLa cells with negative dielectrophoretic response. The array of insulating structures aforementioned is used to enhance the performance of confinement. According to numerical simulations, three-dimensional electrodes exhibit the best focusing performance, followed by dual-planar and planar electrodes. Experimental results reveal that increasing the strength of the applied electric field or decreasing the inlet flow rate significantly enhances focusing performance. The smallest width of focusing is 17 μm for an applied voltage and an inlet flow rate of 35 V and 0.5 μl/min, respectively. The effect of the inlet flow rate on focusing is insignificant for an applied voltage of 35 V. The proposed design retains the advantages of insulator-based dielectrophoresis with a relatively low required voltage. Additionally, complicated flow controls are unnecessary for the three-dimensional focusing of cells.     

ac electroosmotic pumping induced by noncontact external electrodes

Electroosmotic (EO) pumps based on dc electroosmosis is plagued by bubble generation and other electrochemical reactions at the electrodes at voltages beyond 1 V for electrolytes. These disadvantages limit their throughput and offset their portability advantage over mechanical syringe or pneumatic pumps. ac electroosmotic pumps at high frequency (>100 kHz) circumvent the bubble problem by inducing polarization and slip velocity on embedded electrodes,¹ but they require complex electrode designs to produce a net flow. We report a new high-throughput ac EO pump design based on induced-polarization on the entire channel surface instead of just on the electrodes. Like dc EO pumps, our pump electrodes are outside of the load section and form a cm-long pump unit consisting of three circular reservoirs (3 mm in diameter) connected by a 1×1 mm channel. The field-induced polarization can produce an effective Zeta potential exceeding 1 V and an ac slip velocity estimated as 1 mm∕sec or higher, both one order of magnitude higher than earlier dc and ac pumps, giving rise to a maximum throughput of 1 μl∕sec. Polarization over the entire channel surface, quadratic scaling with respect to the field and high voltage at high frequency without electrode bubble generation are the reasons why the current pump is superior to earlier dc and ac EO pumps.     

Characterization and separation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia cells using on-chip dielectrophoresis

Dielectrophoresis (DEP) has been shown to have significant potential for the characterization of cells and could become an efficient tool for rapid identification and assessment of microorganisms. The present work is focused on the trapping, characterization, and separation of two species of Cryptosporidium (C. parvum and C. muris) and Giardia lambia (G. lambia) using a microfluidic experimental setup. Cryptosporidium oocysts, which are 2-4 μm in size and nearly spherical in shape, are used for the preliminary stage of prototype development and testing. G. lambia cysts are 8–12 μm in size. In order to facilitate effective trapping, simulations were performed to study the effects of buffer conductivity and applied voltage on the flow and cell transport inside the DEP chip. Microscopic experiments were performed using the fabricated device and the real part of Clausius—Mossotti factor of the cells was estimated from critical voltages for particle trapping at the electrodes under steady fluid flow. The dielectric properties of the cell compartments (cytoplasm and membrane) were calculated based on a single shell model of the cells. The separation of C. muris and G. lambia is achieved successfully at a frequency of 10 MHz and a voltage of 3 Vpp (peak to peak voltage).     

Contactless microfluidic pumping using microchannel-integrated carbon black composite membranes

The ability to pump and manipulate fluid at the micron-scale is a basic requirement for microfluidic platforms. Many current manipulation methods, however, require expensive and bulky external supporting equipment, which are not typically compatible for portable applications. We have developed a contactless metal electro-osmotic micropump capable of pumping conductive buffers. The pump operates using two pairs of gallium metal electrodes, which are activated using an external voltage source and separated from a main flow channel by a thin micron-scale polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) membrane. The thin contactless membrane allows for field penetration and electro-osmotic flow within the microchannel, but eliminates electrode damage and sample contamination commonly associated with traditional DC electro-osmotic pumps that utilize electrodes in direct contact with the working fluid. Our previous work has demonstrated the effectiveness of this method in pumping deionized water. However, due to the high resistivity of PDMS, this method proved difficult to apply towards manipulating conductive buffers. To overcome this limitation, we fabricated conductive carbon black (CB) powder directly into the contactless PDMS membranes. The increased electrical conductivity of the contactless PDMS membrane significantly increased micropump performance. Using a microfluidic T-channel device and an electro-osmotic flow model, we determined the influence that CB has on pump pressure for CB weight percents varying between 0 and 20. The results demonstrate that the CB increases pump pressure by two orders of magnitude and enables effective operations with conductive buffers.     

Negative dielectrophoretic capture of bacterial spores in food matrices

A microfluidic device with planar square electrodes is developed for capturing particles from high conductivity media using negative dielectrophoresis (n-DEP). Specifically, Bacillus subtilis and Clostridium sporogenes spores, and polystyrene particles are tested in NaCl solution (0.05 and 0.225 S∕m), apple juice (0.225 S∕m), and milk (0.525 S∕m). Depending on the conductivity of the medium, the Joule heating produces electrothermal flow (ETF), which continuously circulates and transports the particles to the DEP capture sites. Combination of the ETF and n-DEP results in different particle capture efficiencies as a function of the conductivity. Utilizing 20 μm height DEP chambers, “almost complete” and rapid particle capture from lower conductivity (0.05 S∕m) medium is observed. Using DEP chambers above 150 μm in height, the onset of a global fluid motion for high conductivity media is observed. This motion enhances particle capture on the electrodes at the center of the DEP chamber. The n-DEP electrodes are designed to have well defined electric field minima, enabling sample concentration at 1000 distinct locations within the chip. The electrode design also facilitates integration of immunoassay and other surface sensors onto the particle capture sites for rapid detection of target micro-organisms in the future.     

Effect of electrical double layer on electric conductivity and pressure drop in a pressure-driven microchannel flow

The effect of an electrical double layer (EDL) on microchannel flow has been studied widely, and a constant bulk electric conductivity is often used in calculations of flow rate or pressure drop. In our experimental study of pressure-driven micropipette flows, the pipette diameter is on the same order of magnitude as the Debye length. The overlapping EDL resulted in a much higher electric conductivity, lower streaming potential, and lower electroviscous effect. To elucidate the effect of overlapping EDL, this paper developed a simple model for water flow without salts or dissolved gases (such as CO₂) inside a two-dimensional microchannel. The governing equations for the flow, the Poisson, and Nernst equations for the electric potential and ion concentrations and the charge continuity equation were solved. The effects of overlapping EDL on the electric conductivity, velocity distribution, and overall pressure drop in the microchannel were quantified. The results showed that the average electric conductivity of electrolyte inside the channel increased significantly as the EDL overlaps. With the modified mean electric conductivity, the pressure drop for the pressure-driven flow was smaller than that without the influence of the EDL on conductivity. The results of this study provide a physical explanation for the observed decrease in electroviscous effect for microchannels when the EDL layers from opposing walls overlap.     

Electrode shaping to establish a uniform electric field along high voltage resistors

An electrode design is developed for the purpose of obtaining a constant potential gradient along the surface of a cylinder. Such a design is important in a high voltage low current resistance in order that the voltage drop per unit of resistance be constant. It is found that the dimensions of such a resistor and its associated electrodes can be reduced considerably by the proper electrode design.     

Separation of tumor cells with dielectrophoresis-based microfluidic chip

The present work demonstrates the use of a dielectrophoretic lab-on-a-chip device in effectively separating different cancer cells of epithelial origin for application in circulating tumor cell (CTC) identification. This study uses dielectrophoresis (DEP) to distinguish and separate MCF-7 human breast cancer cells from HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells. The DEP responses for each cell type were measured against AC electrical frequency changes in solutions of varying conductivities. Increasing the conductivity of the suspension directly correlated with an increasing frequency value for the first cross-over (no DEP force) point in the DEP spectra. Differences in the cross-over frequency for each cell type were leveraged to determine a frequency at which the two types of cell could be separated through DEP forces. Under a particular medium conductivity, different types of cells could have different DEP behaviors in a very narrow AC frequency band, demonstrating a high specificity of DEP. Using a microfluidic DEP sorter with optically transparent electrodes, MCF-7 and HCT-116 cells were successfully separated from each other under a 3.2 MHz frequency in a 0.1X PBS solution. Further experiments were conducted to characterize the separation efficiency (enrichment factor) by changing experimental parameters (AC frequency, voltage, and flow rate). This work has shown the high specificity of the described DEP cell sorter for distinguishing cells with similar characteristics for potential diagnostic applications through CTC enrichment.     

A novel alternating current multiple array electrothermal micropump for lab-on-a-chip applications

The AC electrothermal technique is very promising for biofluid micropumping, due to its ability to pump high conductivity fluids. However, compared to electroosmotic micropumps, a lack of high fluid flow is a disadvantage. In this paper, a novel AC multiple array electrothermal (MAET) micropump, utilizing multiple microelectrode arrays placed on the side-walls of the fluidic channel of the micropump, is introduced. Asymmetric coplanar microelectrodes are placed on all sides of the microfluidic channel, and are actuated in different phases: one, two opposing, two adjacent, three, or all sides at the same time. Micropumps with different combinations of side electrodes and cross sections are numerically investigated in this paper. The effect of the governing parameters with respect to thermal, fluidic, and electrical properties are studied and discussed. To verify the simulations, the AC MAET concept was then fabricated and experimentally tested. The resulted fluid flow achieved by the experiments showed good agreement with the corresponding simulations. The number of side electrode arrays and the actuation patterns were also found to greatly influence the micropump performance. This study shows that the new multiple array electrothermal micropump design can be used in a wide range of applications such as drug delivery and lab-on-a-chip, where high flow rate and high precision micropumping devices for high conductivity fluids are needed.     

Viscous MFD low Hartmann flow in an annular gap—a magnetic prandtl number expansion

The problem of a liquid conductor confined between two concentric cylindrical electrodes and driven electromagnetically is considered. The steady, three-dimensional viscous case is treated asymptotically in the limit of small magnetic Prandtl numbers. The zeroth-order solution to the coupled hydrodynamic and Maxwell equations yields the trivial solution of no motion in the limit of vanishing conductivity. Results for the first-order solution indicate two-dimensional effects in the electromagnetic field quantities while the first-order velocity is one dimensional in the circumferential direction. Due to secular effects the solution is limited to values of small Hartmann numbers. The formulation of the second order and a limited solution for the velocity distribution indicates that the velocity field is three-dimensional having a cell-type structure.     

水利学与施工技术应用

非均匀流可分为渐变流和急变流。在明渠中渐变流的水深可能沿程逐渐增大,也可能逐渐减小,从而形成常见的壅水曲线或降水曲线;而明渠中急变流的水深可以在局部急剧增大,也可以在局部突然降低,从而形成常见的水跃或水跌。     

High-throughput sorting of drops in microfluidic chips using electric capacitance

We analyze a recently introduced approach for the sorting of aqueous drops with biological content immersed in oil, using a microfluidic chip that combines the functionality of electrowetting with the high throughput of two-phase flow microfluidics. In this electrostatic sorter, three co-planar electrodes covered by a thin dielectric layer are placed directly below the fluidic channel. Switching the potential of the central electrode creates an electrical guide that leads the drop to the desired outlet. The generated force, which deflects the drop, can be tuned via the voltage. The working principle is based on a contrast in conductivity between the drop and the continuous phase, which ensures successful operation even for drops of highly conductive biological media like phosphate buffered saline. Moreover, since the electric field does not penetrate the drop, its content is protected from electrical currents and Joule heating. A simple capacitive model allows quantitative prediction of the electrostatic forces exerted on drops. The maximum achievable sorting rate is determined by a competition between electrostatic and hydrodynamic forces. Sorting speeds up to 1200 per second are demonstrated for conductive drops of 160 pl in low viscosity oil.     

Modeling of a novel fish passage-way using coupled spatially varied flow

An innovative hydraulic structure was proposed for passage of fish in surface water. The structure consisted of identical ‘cells’ throughout its length and was designed to create coupled spatially varied flow for optimization of depth and velocity of water. The objective of this paper was to simulate the hydraulics of a single cell of this fish passage structure. A numerical model was developed to simulate the water surface profiles and longitudinal variation of 1-D velocity through one cell. The transition in the water surface profile between longitudinally adjacent cells (chamber) was also investigated. It was found that numerical convergence was usually achieved after three iterations with 2% discretization. The difference in depth arising from cell vs. chamber analysis was found to be small. The experimental results indicated turbulence in the water surface. The water surface profile matched the results obtained from numerical results. However, there were errors observed in estimation of flow rate. It is concluded that the mathematical approach used for the numerical simulation is reliable and can be used to analyze coupled spatially varied flow for any hydraulic structures aimed at controlling depth and velocity of water. Innovative approach to the interface between can potentially be used to achieve hydraulic goal of any structure.     

Temperature-induced droplet coalescence in microchannels

This paper reports a technique for temperature-induced merging of droplets in a microchannel. The multiphase system consists of water droplet and oil as the dispersed phase and the carrying continuous phase. A resistive heater provides heating in a rectangular merging chamber. The temperature of the chamber is controlled by the voltage applied to the heater. The merging process of two neighboring droplets was investigated with different applied voltage, flow rate ratio between water and oil and total flowrate. Merging is found to be effective at high flow rate ratio, high temperature, and low total flowrate. The presented technique could be used for merging and mixing in droplet-based lab-on-a-chip platforms.     

Pressure-driven transport of particles through a converging-diverging microchannel

Pressure-driven transport of particles through a symmetric converging-diverging microchannel is studied by solving a coupled nonlinear system, which is composed of the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations using the arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian finite-element technique. The predicted particle translation is in good agreement with existing experimental observations. The effects of pressure gradient, particle size, channel geometry, and a particle’s initial location on the particle transport are investigated. The pressure gradient has no effect on the ratio of the translational velocity of particles through a converging-diverging channel to that in the upstream straight channel. Particles are generally accelerated in the converging region and then decelerated in the diverging region, with the maximum translational velocity at the throat. For particles with diameters close to the width of the channel throat, the usual acceleration process is divided into three stages: Acceleration, deceleration, and reacceleration instead of a monotonic acceleration. Moreover, the maximum translational velocity occurs at the end of the first acceleration stage rather than at the throat. Along the centerline of the microchannel, particles do not rotate, and the closer a particle is located near the channel wall, the higher is its rotational velocity. Analysis of the transport of two particles demonstrates the feasibility of using a converging-diverging microchannel for passive (biological and synthetic) particle separation and ordering.     

Study on the use of dielectrophoresis and electrothermal forces to produce on-chip micromixers and microconcentrators

The present study uses the dielectrophoresis (DEP) and electrothermal (ET) forces to develop on-chip micromixers and microconcentrators. A microchannel with rectangular array of microelectrodes, patterned either on its bottom surface only or on both the top and the bottom surfaces, is considered for the analysis. A mathematical model to compute electrical field, temperature field, the fluid velocity, and the concentration distributions is developed. Both analytical and numerical solutions of standing wave DEP (SWDEP), traveling wave DEP (TWDEP), standing wave ET (SWET), and traveling wave ET (TWET) forces along the length and the height of the channel are compared. The effects of electrode size and their placement in the microsystem on micromixing and microconcentrating performance are studied and compared to velocity and concentration profiles. SWDEP forces can be used to collect the particles at different locations in the microchannel. Under positive and negative DEP effect, the particles are collected at electrode edges and away from the electrodes, respectively, irrespective of the position, size, and number of electrodes. The location of the concentration region can be shifted by changing the electrode position. SWET and TWET forces are used for mixing and producing concentration regions by circulating the fluid at a given location. The effect of forces can be changed with the applied voltage. The TWDEP method is the better method for mixing along the length of the channels among the four options explored in the present work. If two layers of particle suspension are placed side by side in the channel, triangular electrode configuration can be used to mix the suspensions. Triangular and rectangular electrode configurations can efficiently mix two layers of particle suspension placed side-by-side and one-atop-the-other, respectively. Hence, SWDEP forces can be successfully used to create microconcentrators, whereas TWDEP, SWET, and TWET can be used to produce efficient micromixers in a microfluidic chip.     

Numerical simulation on the opto-electro-kinetic patterning for rapid concentration of particles in a microchannel

This paper presents a mathematical model for laser-induced rapid electro-kinetic patterning (REP) to elucidate the mechanism for concentrating particles in a microchannel non-destructively and non-invasively. COMSOL^®(v4.2a) multiphysics software was used to examine the effect of a variety of parameters on the focusing performance of the REP. A mathematical model of the REP was developed based on the AC electrothermal flow (ACET) equations, the dielectrophoresis (DEP) equation, the energy balance equation, the Navier-Stokes equation, and the concentration-distribution equation. The medium was assumed to be a diluted solute, and different electric potentials and laser illumination were applied to the desired place. Gold (Au) electrodes were used at the top and bottom of a microchannel. For model validation, the simulation results were compared with the experimental data. The results revealed the formation of a toroidal microvortex via the ACET effect, which was generated due to laser illumination and joule-heating in the area of interest. In addition, under some conditions, such as the frequency of AC, the DEP velocity, and the particle size, the ACET force enhances and compresses resulting in the concentration of particles. The conditions of the DEP velocity and the ACET velocity are presented in detail with a comparison of the experimental results.