Interactive effects of the probability of the cue and the probability of the outcome on the overestimation of null contingency

Overestimations of null contingencies between a cue, C, and an outcome, O, are widely reported effects that can arise for multiple reasons. For instance, a high probability of the cue, P(C), and a high probability of the outcome, P(O), are conditions that promote such overestimations. In two experiments, participants were asked to judge the contingency between a cue and an outcome. Both P(C) and P(O) were given extreme values (high and low) in a factorial design, while maintaining the contingency between the two events at zero. While we were able to observe main effects of the probability of each event, our experiments showed that the cue- and outcome-density biases interacted such that a high probability of the two stimuli enhanced the overestimation beyond the effects observed when only one of the two events was frequent. This evidence can be used to better understand certain societal issues, such as belief in pseudoscience, that can be the result of overestimations of null contingencies in high-P(C) or high-P(O) situations.     

Freeing the Mind of the Oppressed

This article examines the evidence that supports and rebuts the claims of school resegregation. By examining both types of evidence and considering them complementary (James 1986 James, F. 1986. A new generalized “exposure-based” segregation index: Demonstration in Denver and Houston. Sociological Methods and Research, 14(3): 301–16. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Kelly and Miller 1989 Kelly, P. and Miller, W. 1989. Assessing desegregation efforts: No “best measure.”. Public Administration Review, 49(5): 431–37. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), the author gives the reader a deeper understanding of the current trends in school segregation. First, the literature on the topic of school segregation is discussed. Then follows a discussion of the methods used in the study and the findings. The conclusion includes implications of the findings.     

Reflections on the prospects of the evolution of the structure of education systems

In 1965, Raymond Poignant published in Paris, on the initiative of the European Institute of University Studies, a work entitledEnseignement dans les Pays du Marché Commun. This work, which was subsequently translated and published in English and German has become a classic of its kind. The initial idea was to compare the structures and relative degrees of development of the educational systems in the European Economic Community (EEC) countries, the United States of America, the United Kingdom and the U.S.S.R., in order to see how school and university systems in the EEC countries were adapting to the most pressing human, social, democratic and economic requirements of the modern world. This idea originated in the apprehension that, because of the strength of their long educational traditions, the EEC countries might find it more difficult than others to make the necessary adjustments. The conclusions of this initial work in many respects confirmed this apprehension and contributed, at the time, to the development taking place in European educational systems.Under an agreement between IIEP and the European Cultural Foundation, Raymond Poignant is to publish a new work entitledL'Enseignement dans les Pays Industrialisés (Education in the Industrialized Countries), which to some extent carries on from the first but is motivated by other preoccupations.In this second work, which is set in the general context of the studies undertaken by the European Cultural Foundation on European education in the year 2000, the point is not so much to emphasize the quantitative and qualitative differences still encountered in the educational systems of the eleven countries under consideration—Japan and Sweden having been added to the original sample—as to show up some of the most characteristic trends common to their development during the last two decades or the trends of development in the most advanced countries, trends which, by the year 2000, a date so distant and yet so close at hand, may or should develop more rapidly or indeed become general.The author takes the changes noted since 1950 in the eleven countries considered, which he sees as being of some indicative value for the future, and outlines, in conclusion, the directions in which he feels they should continue in the three decades between now and the year 2000. He points out the forces of resistance of every kind which, in the short term, slow down the transformation of educational structures in the various European countries. He also emphasizes the decisive influence which the trend towards a levelling-out in the attitudes of different social groups towards secondary and higher education is likely to have on the dynamics of the development of European educational systems, of which he describes both the uncertainties and the most likely prospects.The European Cultural Foundation and the Nijhoff Publishing House have kindly given their permission for publication in the reviewProspects of a long extract from the conclusions of this work, which concerns future changes in the structure of European educational systems.Maître des requêtesin the Conseil d'État. Rapporteur of the Commission for Educational Planning for the Third and then the Fourth Plan in France (1957–61; 1962–65). Main publications: Education and Development in Western Europe, the United States and the U.S.S.R. (1969); Les Plans de Développement et la Planification Économique et Sociale (1967); Educational planning in the U.S.S.R. (co-author; 1968).     

An Evaluation of the Use of the Behaviour Questionnaire

Effective and efficient assessment is essential to support school improvement, the progress of individual pupils and teachers’ classroom management. A group of educational psychologists used the items for measuring pupils’ emotional and behavioural development found in Supporting school improvement: Emotional and behavioural development (2001 Department for Education and Skills. 2001. Supporting school improvement: Emotional and behavioural development, Sudbury: QCA.  [Google Scholar]) to develop a questionnaire for use in their schools. Following the introduction of the Behaviour Questionnaire (BQ) its usefulness, ease of completion and potential as a tool to monitor intervention were evaluated. Most users found the Behaviour Questionnaire useful and easy to complete. Changes in the behaviour of pupils were identified indicating that the Behaviour Questionnaire has potential for use in monitoring and evaluating interventions.     

谈《水浒传》的题材与主题

《水浒传》以古代农民起义为题材，但反映的却是封建社会忠奸斗争的主题。原因是《水浒传》没有写出封建社会地主阶级最本质的特征-对农民残酷的经济剥削；作者是市井中人，不熟悉农村，农民生活；水浒故事在长期流传中被市民化了，书中的主要人物不代表农民阶级的利益，梁山起义队伍的军事活动不具备农民革命战争的性质。     

Correcting experience-based judgments: the perseverance of subjective experience in the face of the correction of judgment

Many of our cognitive and metacognitive judgments are based on sheer subjective experience. Subjective experience, however, may be contaminated by irrelevant factors, resulting in biased judgments. Under certain conditions people exert a metacognitive correction process to remedy such biased judgments. In this study we examine the proposition that even after a judgment has been corrected to avoid the biasing effects on subjective experience, subjective experience itself remains biased. We asked participants to judge the difficulty of anagrams for others. When they were aware of having been exposed to the solutions of some of the anagrams, they corrected their difficulty judgments for these anagrams. Despite this correction, their speeded choices in a subsequent task disclosed their biased subjective experience that these anagrams were easier to solve. Implications for the study of metacognition and for the educational domain are discussed.

论苏联解体的原因和教训

苏联解体是２０世纪国际政治的重在事件,蕴含着深刻的历史内涵,其原因在致有如下为１．长期推行僵化的经济体制,国民经济发展停滞不前;２．高度集权的政治体制,民主和法制不健全;３．苏共建设上存在严重问题,４．国内的民族矛盾;５．“８．１９”事件;６．戈尔巴夫的个人因素。社会主义国家应吸取苏联解体的教训;１．加强和改善共产党的领导;２．稳步推进政治体制改革;３．以经济建设为中心,推进经济体制改革;４．坚定     

建文帝在靖难之役中的败因探析

建文帝即位后施行削藩政策,激起朱棣发动靖难之役,最终以失败退出历史舞台。究其原因,大致可以归结为建文帝的八个不足:性格的宽厚仁慈,过重的文人气息,竞争对手的强大,能臣悍将的匮乏,用人方针的不当,削藩策略的失误,征讨方式的缺陷,宦官的不利影响。     

Two is the Beginning of the End: Peter Pan and the Doctrine of Reminiscence

This article considers J.M. Barrie’s satirical treatment of the Platonic doctrine of reminiscence in Peter Pan, and how Barrie’s work both honors and undercuts it. It will first analyze the Platonic notion of the doctrine of reminiscence in Wordsworth’s “Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood” (1807). It will then show its influence on Victorian literature in the depiction of the exalted perception and moral purity of children, and how Barrie satirizes these ideals by underscoring the ignorance and savage qualities of the children in Peter Pan. The essay will also explore the portrayal of the Eden of childhood in Wordsworth’s poem (as influenced by Plato), and how Barrie subverts this utopia by presenting a dystopic world where Darwinian principles rule. Like Darwin, Barrie argues for a natural rather than a divine origin of species and demonstrates the struggle for existence in a profoundly disturbing way. Finally, the essay will contemplate the subject of immortality and how, far from being an idealized condition as in Wordsworth’s poetry, it is a far more ambivalent state in Peter Pan.

The educational work of the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

She (Lady Darling) was rarely not pregnant. (She gave birth to a son in October 1826)... to another son in 1827 (who died in 1828), a daughter in 1829, she miscarried in 1830, and was heavily pregnant when she left the colony in 1831. Often indisposed, for nearly a year she was hardly able to leave her couch. ^{2 2}Heather Radi ‘Fanny Macleay’, in Heather Radi, ed., 200 Australian Women (Broadway: Women's Redress Press, n.d.), 7.      

Enter the era of the business of knowledge: Exit not the reign of academic freedom

Abstract

The establishment of the Fachhochschul sector is regarded as the most significant success story of the last decade in Austrian higher education. This new sector was legally established in 1993 (FHStG) and started to enrol students in 1994. For the academic year 2000/01, there were 55 Fachhochschul courses offered with a further 15 already planned. The sector has about 9,000 students, and has already produced 2,600 graduates. In only a few years it has built up a high reputation amongst students, employers, and the general public. This paper looks back to the early 1990s, when the Fachhochschul policy was designed. It reconsiders some of the arguments and conflicts which at that time were stirred by this reform and its focus is on the influence which was exercised by the British polytechnics. The paper will argue that the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA) served as a role model for the Fachhochschulrat (FHR), which is a cornerstone for the Austrian Fachhochschul sector and it will discuss why ‐ against the odds ‐ this policy transfer was successful.¹     

Images of the limit of function formed in the course of mathematical studies at the university

The paper is based on extensive research carried out on students of mathematics who had completed a university course of calculus. The basic purpose of the research was to determine the students' images of the concept of limit, that is to find out their associations, conceptions and intuitions connected with limits and to determine the degree of their efficiency and the sources of their formation. To achieve the objectives an expanded set of selected problems — simple but not quite standard — and various other research instruments were used. Several classes of images of the limit concept have been identified and described, according to their main foci: neighborhoods, graph approaching, values approaching, being defined at x₀, limit of f atx₀ equals f(x₀), and algorithms.     

19世纪俄国革命道德原则的变迁

19世纪俄国革命经历了贵族革命、平民知识分子运动和无产阶级运动三个阶段,每阶段革命运动的目标与手段始终随主导阶级的道德原则而发展变化,使俄国革命在温和与激进、人道与恐怖的矛盾斗争中曲折前行。道德原则赋予了革命正义性,革命的结果反过来验证革命道德的价值,从这个视角出发,可以了解到另一部俄国革命思想史。     

'For the Sake of the Children' as the Worth of the Teacher? The Gendered Discourses of the New Zealand National Kindergarten Teachers' Employment Negotiations

Within the texts from the 1992 National Kindergarten Teachers' Collective Employment Contract Negotiations, using Foucault's interpretation of 'discourse', dominant discourses were identified. Two of these discourses illustrate the gendered nature of the position of kindergarten teachers in New Zealand, which I have called 'Children First' and 'For the Sake of the Children'. These discourses can be seen to be used tactically to affect the outcomes of the negotiations, and have 'their' view accepted as 'reality'. Each sited teachers in a powerless position for negotiating wages and working conditions, but presented different possibilities outside of the negotiating setting. This paper addresses these two discourses, which most clearly illustrated the gendered nature of the position of New Zealand kindergarten teachers.     

Student-faculty interaction and the organization of the university

After learning is defined as a two-way process involving the mutual engagement of complete persons, the structural inhibitions on this kind of educational process are described in an analysis of the large university as a mass organization. The strains inherent in faculty and student roles are outlined and a number of adaptive identities are posited that could be enacted to reduce them. The effects of these processes on learning are delineated and organizational changes are suggested to resolve or minimize the problems raised.

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Résumé Après avoir défini l'enseignement comme une communication bilatérale qui implique un engagement mutuel et total des individus qui y prennent part, la présente étude décrit les limitations structurelles d'un tel système éducatif en présentant une analyse de l'organisation massive que représente une grande université. Elle souligne par ailleurs les tensions inhérentes aux rôles respectifs joués par les professeurs et les étudiants et énonce un certain nombre d'identités à caractère flexible que l'on pourrait attribuer afin d'alléger les tensions en question. L'auteur esquisse enfin les effets produits par ces démarches sur l'enseignement et suggère les modifications organiques susceptibles de résoudre ou de minimiser les difficultés qui se posent dans ce domaine.

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The authors would like to thank Mr. Paul Paschke for his substantive suggestions and theoretical refinements that broadened the scope and depth of this paper.     

以卓越中医计划为契机深化方剂课程考试改革

以培养卓越中医为目标,改革现行的方剂考试内容、考试方法,以考促学,以考促教,培养中医本科生分析运用方剂及临证组方的能力,提高人才培养质量。     

The Effects of the Scott Report on the Administration of the NSW Department of Technical and Further Education

The NSW Department of Technical & Further Education provided post‐secondary education to 393 361 students in 1989 ¹1 1. NSW Department of TAFE, TAFE Annual Report 1989, NSW TAFE Marketing Services, 1990. covering a vast range of courses offered in 107 colleges and associated centres throughout NSW.

From the commencement of the 1990 academic year, the management structure of TAFE has changed.

This paper discusses the background to the establishment of the NSW Department of TAFE; the organisational structure pre‐Scott; and the organisational structure of TAFE post‐Scott.

     

再论中国共产党的创建与中国先进生产力的发展要求

从对加深党成立的历史必然性和先进性的认识,领会党的历史使命与党领导和进行民主革命的道理,认识提出"三个代表"重要思想和坚持生产力标准的历史依据等三个方面说明了研究中国共产党创建的生产力基础问题的重要意义.     

Effects of the duration of expressions on the recognition of microexpressions

Objective  

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the duration of expressions on the recognition of microexpressions, which are closely related to deception.     

Overview of the innovative process and the user

The focus of this overview is on the role of the user (student, teacher, parent) in the process of educational change. In the first section research literature is reviewed by critically examining the assumptions of existing models and approaches to educational change, and by analyzing evidence on actual user experience with educational innovations. The main conclusion is that the modal process of change whereby innovations are developed external to schools and then transmitted to them has led to no significant change at the user level. In the second section of the paper, the analysis is extended by relating the basic contentions and findings of the authors in the present issue to the criteria for effective change identified in the first section. These articles provide important state-of-the-field analyses of various aspects of school innovations in organization for learning and in curriculum. The overall conclusion in the final section is that a radical restructuring of the role of the user and a complete reversal of the direction of influence in the process of change are required if effective innovations are to occur. Finally, the main principles and elements of reform—techniques, activities, organizational forms—necessary to support this active user role, and other factors beyond the user level that might impinge on this role, are outlined.

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Résumé Cet article concentre l'attention sur le rôle de l'usager (étudiant, professeur, parent) dans le processus de l'évolution en éducation. Dans la première partie, l'auteur passe en revue les rapports de recherches et se livre à une étude critique des hypothèses servant de base aux modèles existants et des moyens d'aborder le problème de l'évolution en éducation; il analyse par ailleurs les preuves sur l'expérience réelle de l'usager en matière d'innovations éducatives. La conclusion principale tirée de cette étude est que le processus conditionnel de l'évolution, selon lequel les innovations se développent d'abord à l'extérieur de l'école pour y être communiquées par la suite, n'a pas abouti à un changement important au niveau de l'usager. Dans la deuxième partie, l'auteur pousse plus loin son analyse et compare les affirmations et les découvertes de base des auteurs de la présente publication, auteurs qui se sont penchés sur ce problème aux critères indispensables à l'évolution et identifiés dans la première partie. Ces articles renferment d'importantes analyses sur l'état du problème et sur les aspects relatifs aux innovations scolaires en matière d'organisation en vue de l'apprentissage et du programme d'études. Dans sa conclusion générale, exposée dans la dernière partie de l'article, l'auteur affirme que si l'on veut aboutir à des innovations efficaces, il faudra procéder à une restructuration radicale du rôle de l'usager et à un renversement complet de l'orientation de l'influence qui s'exerce dans le processus de l'évolution. Il énumère enfin les principes et les éléments fondamentaux de la réforme qui sont nécessaires à appuyer ce rôle actif de l'usager: techniques, activités, formules d'organisation—ainsi que les autres facteurs qui dépassent le niveau de l'usager et qui peuvent empiéter sur le rôle en question.

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I would like to thank Andrew Effrat and Paul Paschke for their many valuable contributions in developing this issue, and Glenn Eastabrook for many ideas included in the introduction. I would also like to thank Nancy McIntosh for typing this introduction, and Barbara Finch and Catherine Cragg for their extensive editorial work.