Measuring perceived social support: Development of the child and adolescent social support scale (CASSS)

The measurement of students' social support has become a popular topic in education and psychology, yet measurement tools in this area are limited. In this study, we use a large, representative sample to conduct confirmatory factor, reliability, and correlational analyses of scores on the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (CASSS; Malecki, Demaray, Elliott, & Nolten, 1999). These analyses revealed evidence of reliability, a four‐factor structure (Parent, Teacher, Classmate, and Close Friend subscales), and construct validity. The results of this study indicate that the CASSS covaries as predicted with the clinically important constructs of self‐concept, social skills, and behavioral indicators. There is evidence that the CASSS can be used to understand children and adolescents' perceived social support. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Self‐report on the social skills rating system: Analysis of reliability and validity for an elementary sample

The Social Skills Rating System (SSRS; F.M. Gresham & S.N. Elliott, 1990) is a norm‐referenced measure of students' social and problem behaviors. Since its release, much of the published reliability and validity evidence for the SSRS has focused primarily on the Teacher Report Form. The purpose of this study was to explore reliability and validity evidence of scores on the SSRS‐Student Elementary Form (SSRS‐SEF) for children in Grades 3 to 5. Findings provided support for the use of Total scale as a measure of student social behavior for initial screening purposes; however, evidence for the subscales was not as strong as predicted. Directions for future research regarding reliability and validity of scores from the SSRS‐SEF are discussed. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 345–354, 2005.     

Reliability and validity of the Math Essential Skill Screener—Elementary Version (MESS-E)

The Math Essential Skill Screener–Elementary Version (MESS-E) is a screener devised to identify primary grade students at risk for math difficulties. Item analysis, interitem consistency, test–retest reliability, decision efficiency, and construct validity of the MESS-E were studied using four independent samples of boys and girls grades 1–3 (aged 6–8). Item analysis revealed median item difficulty of .64 and median item discrimination of .75. Interitem consistency was .92 (n = 171) and .94 (n = 711), while 30-day test–retest reliability was .86 (n = 125). Exploratory factor analysis indicated a one-factor solution accounting for 37% of observed variance. LISREL 7 confirmatory factor analysis procedures determined that the one-factor model fit the standardization sample data poorly (goodness-of-fit index = .729, χ² to df ratio = 9.91). The MESS-E yielded concurrent validity coefficients (n = 171) of .74 with the Woodcock–Johnson: Tests of Achievement–Revised (WJ-R) Math Cluster, .80 with the Wide-Range Achievement Test–Revised (WRAT-R) Arithmetic subtest and .73 with the KeyMath-R Operations Area standard scores. A diagnostic efficiency study yielded a total predictive value (TPV) of .93, sensitivity = .98, specificity = .88, positive predictive power (PPP) = .89, negative predictive power (NPP) = .98, and incremental validity = 39%. The MESS-E displayed a slight tendency to overidentify children potentially at risk for math difficulties. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Concurrent validity of the Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test and the Leiter International Performance Scale–Revised

One hundred elementary‐ and middle‐school students were administered the Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT; B.A. Bracken & R.S. McCallum, 1998) and the Leiter International Performance Scale‐Revised (Leiter‐R; G.H. Roid & L.J. Miller, 1997). Correlations between UNIT and Leiter‐R scores were statistically significant ( p < .001), ranging from .33 to .74. The UNIT Full Scale score was 5 points higher than the Leiter‐R Full Scale score, t = 4.73, p < .001. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 143–148, 2006.     

Discriminative validity of the WRAML with ADHD and LD children

The Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML; Sheslow & Adams, 1990) is a nationally standardized instrument designed to assess memory and learning skills in children and adolescents. This study assessed the relationship of WRAML scores to WISC-III and WJ-R results in three groups: (a) LD children with reading difficulties, (b) ADHD children, and (c) nonhandicapped referred children. Total sample size was 120. Discriminant function analysis demonstrated that the WRAML provided little distinguishing information for ADHD and LD children. Likewise, the usefulness of the Learning subtests is questionable. It is suggested that inclusion of working memory tasks that require reconfiguration of material, problem solving, and more complexity may be more beneficial in identifying processing weaknesses with suspected ADHD and LD youngsters. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The reliability and construct validity of ratings for the autism behavior checklist

The reliability and construct validity of ratings for the Autism Behavior Checklist were examined with a sample of 198 children diagnosed with autistic disorder and conditions often confused with autism. Alpha coefficients for the five scales of the ABC as well as the Total Score were reported and the factor structure of the ABC was examined through confirmatory factor analysis. The results of the reliability analyses indicated that the Total Score alpha coefficient of the ABC was adequate for screening purposes, but the reliabilities of the scales were not. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated some support for alternate four‐ and five‐factor models. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 129–142, 2006.     

ADAPTATION AND PSYCHOMETRIC EVALUATION OF A RESILIENCE MEASURE IN GREEK ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

This study aimed to adapt the Resilience Youth Development Module (RYDM) and assess its psychometric properties in terms of internal consistency and convergent validity in Greek elementary students. Participants (N = 346) completed a battery of self‐report questionnaires, including the RYDM, School Connectedness Scale, and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Cronbach's alpha coefficients indicated that the reliability of the RYDM is satisfactory. The confirmatory factor analysis results demonstrated that the proposed structure, which derived from the explorative principal component analyses of the RYDM's internal and external assets, adequately fit the current data. Moreover, the canonical functions derived from the canonical correlation analysis provided evidence for the convergent validity of the RYDM. In conclusion, the RYDM is a psychometrically sound measure, and it can be applied to assess internal and external resilience assets in Greek school‐aged children.     

Assessment of attention in school children: teachers' ratings related to tests of attention

The paper provides (1) a teacher-administered rating instrument for inattention without confounding the rating with hyperactivity and conduct disorder, and (2) evidence that the ratings correlate with the scores obtained from cognitive tests of attention. In Study I, the first objective was to investigate the construct validity and the inter-rater reliability of the Attention Checklist (ACL) by factor analysing the teacher ratings of 110 Grade 4 children, obtained by using the ACL. The second objective was to investigate the predictive validity of the ACL by examining the relationship between the scores obtained for the participants from teachers' ratings using the ACL and the scores obtained by participants in the lab-type attention tests. The results of factor analysis showed that a single factor labelled ‘inattention’ underlies the 12 items in the ACL. Examining the differences in performance on attention tests, the ‘low attention’ children as rated by the teachers on the ACL scored lower than the ‘high attention’ children on the objective tests of attention. These findings were replicated in Study II, which was conducted to test further the construct validity and predictive validity of the ACL. This time, only those two tests (Auditory Attention and Visual Attention) that had shown relatively poor discrimination between the high and low attention groups in Study I were, again, administered to another cohort of 97 Grade 4 children, as it was our intention to further challenge the reliability of the ACL. Overall, the results of both studies suggest that comprehensive assessment of attention skills should include both ACL and objective measures of selective attention.     

The validity of the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment for culturally and linguistically diverse Head Start children

The Devereux Early Childhood Assessment (DECA) is a social-emotional assessment widely used by early childhood educational programs to inform early identification and intervention efforts. However, its construct validity is not well-established in independent samples of children from low-income backgrounds. We examined the construct validity of the teacher report of the DECA using a series of confirmatory factor analyses, exploratory factor analyses, and the Rasch partial credit model in a large sample of culturally and linguistically diverse Head Start children (N = 5,197). Findings provided some evidence for consistency in the factor structure of the three Protective Factors subscales (Initiative, Self-Control, and Attachment); however, the factor structure of the Behavioral Concerns subscale was not replicated in our sample and demonstrated poor fit to these data. Findings suggested that the 10 items of the published Behavioral Concerns subscale did not comprise a unidimensional construct, but rather, were better represented by two factors (externalizing and internalizing behavior). The use of the total Behavioral Concerns score as a screening tool to identify emotional and behavioral problems in diverse samples of preschool children from low-income backgrounds was not supported, especially for internalizing behavior. Implications for the consequential validity of the DECA for use as a screening tool in early childhood programs serving diverse populations of children and directions for future research are discussed.     

Reliability and Validity of a Measure of Preschool Teachers' Attributions for Disruptive Behavior

Research Findings: This study examined the quality of teacher attributions for child disruptive behavior using a new measure, the Preschool Teaching Attributions measure. A sample of 153 early childhood teachers and 432 children participated. All teachers completed the behavior attributions measure, as well as measures regarding demographics, beliefs, self-efficacy, child behavior, and the quality of the teacher–child relationship with selected children. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the hypothesized 2-factor model fit significantly better than a 1-factor model, with the 2 factors being Causal and Responsibility. The resulting Causal and Responsibility subscale scores had solid internal consistency as measured by Cronbach's alpha coefficients. Significant bivariate and partial correlations with teacher practices and beliefs provided preliminary support for the measure's construct validity. Practice or Policy: Findings from this study suggest the importance of including a measure of teacher attributions in studies that explore teachers' beliefs, practices, and relationships with children.     

EXTENDING THE VALIDITY OF THE FAMILY INVOLVEMENT QUESTIONNAIRE–SHORT FORM FOR CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE FAMILIES FROM LOW‐INCOME BACKGROUNDS

The construct validity of the Family Involvement Questionnaire–Short Form (FIQ‐SF) was examined in an independent sample of ethnically and linguistically diverse low‐income families (N = 498) enrolled in an urban Head Start program in the Southeast. A series of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses replicated the three‐factor structure identified in initial validation studies with Northeast samples: home‐school conferencing, home‐based involvement, and school‐based involvement. Findings from multiple group confirmatory factor analyses provided evidence that the three‐factor structure was invariant across family ethnicity. multivariate analyses of variance also confirmed hypothesized mean differences on FIQ‐SF dimension scores across family demographic variables such as caregiver ethnicity, primary home language, caregiver education, employment, and marital status. Findings replicate and extend prior construct validity evidence to support the use of the FIQ‐SF by early childhood education programs such as Head Start serving diverse families from low‐income backgrounds. Implications for future research, practice, and policy applications in early childhood are discussed.     

Development and validation of the sources of parental anxiety in children’s education scale

Parental anxiety in children’s education is closely related to children’s developmental and educational outcomes. The current study reported the development and validation of a self-report instrument to evaluate the Sources of Parental Anxiety in Children’s Education (SPACEs). Qualitative analyses suggested that the construct of parental anxiety in children’s education was multidimensional, representing learning performance anxiety, educational environment anxiety, educational input anxiety, and educational outcome anxiety as four primary sources. The results from exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported this four-factor structure comprising 17 items to capture this multidimensional construct. The scale also demonstrated adequate internal consistencies, convergent validity, discriminant validity, criterion-related validity, and test-retest reliability. A series of multi-group tests across age, locality, and children’s grades provided evidence of measurement invariance. Overall, the SPACE scale appear to be a reliable and valid tool to measure educational anxiety in parents in the Chinese context.     

Stability reliability for elementary-age students on the Woodcock-Johnson psychoeducational battery-Revised (achievement section) and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement

These two studies examined the stability reliability for the Woodcock-Johnson-Revised (WJ-R; Woodcock & Johnson, 1989) and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievment (KTEA; Kaufman & Kaufman, 1985) with approximately a 2-week retest interval for elementary-age students. Results indicated that across grade levels, the Broad Reading Cluster for the WJ-R remained stable. Most correlations for the clusters for mathematics and written language as well as the subtests for reading, mathematics, and written language were less than .90. Correlations for all composites and subtests for the KTEA exceeded .90. These data illustrate the need for more specific information in test manuals on test-retest reliability in order to enable examiners to select the most reliable measures.     

Validation of a 'spurning scale' for teachers: the Chinese sample

The present study represents our continuing effort to validate a 'spurning scale' for teachers, based on a model of spurned helpers' reactions. Three approaches were used to examine the construct validity of the scale: the spurning scores of teachers working with more achieving students versus the scores of teachers teaching less achieving students; the relationships between the spurning scores and job satisfaction and turnover scores; and the relationships between the spurning scores and scores indicative of stress arising from interactions with one's students, and with one's supervisor. Serving teachers in Guangzhou (China) responded to a questionnaire containing the variables of interests. Overall, the results provided further evidence for the validity of the scale.     

Validity of Childhood Career Development Scale scores in South Africa

The purpose of this study was to provide evidence of the construct and concurrent validity of the Childhood Career Development Scale’s (CCDS) scores among South African primary school children. Using a sample of 808 children in grades four through seven, evidence for the CCDS’s construct validity was provided using confirmatory factor analysis, with eight factors confirmed. Evidence for the CCDS’s concurrent validity was also presented by analyzing the relationship between subscales of the Childhood Career Development Scale and measures of self-esteem, locus of control, and children’s industry. The CCDS continues to emerge as a promising theoretically-driven assessment tool.     

Touch your toes! Developing a direct measure of behavioral regulation in early childhood

Behavioral aspects of self-regulation, including controlling and directing actions, paying attention, and remembering instructions, are critical for successful functioning in preschool and elementary school. In recent years, several direct assessments of these skills have appeared, but few studies provide complete psychometric data and many are not easy to administer. We developed a direct measure of children's behavioral regulation, the Head-to-Toes Task, and report performance of participants aged 36–78 months, including a group of Spanish-speaking children, from two different sites (N = 353; N = 92). We examined construct validity, examiner reliability, sources of variation, and associations between task scores and background characteristics. Results showed that the task was valid, reliable, and demonstrated variability in children's scores. A cross-classified hierarchical growth curve analysis indicated that girls, participants assessed in English, and higher-socioeconomic status (SES) children achieved slightly higher average scores than did boys, Spanish-speaking and lower-SES children, but effect sizes were small. Older participants achieved higher scores than did younger children, and there were no effects for site. Results suggest that the Head-to-Toes Task is an informative and easy-to-administer direct assessment of children's behavioral regulation. We discuss implications for its use in early childhood settings.     

Evaluation of Dimensionality in the Assessment of Internal Consistency Reliability: Coefficient Alpha and Omega Coefficients

In the lead article, Davenport, Davison, Liou, & Love demonstrate the relationship among homogeneity, internal consistency, and coefficient alpha, and also distinguish among them. These distinctions are important because too often coefficient alpha—a reliability coefficient—is interpreted as an index of homogeneity or internal consistency. We argue that factor analysis should be conducted before calculating internal consistency estimates of reliability. If factor analysis indicates the assumptions underlying coefficient alpha are met, then it can be reported as a reliability coefficient. However, to the extent that items are multidimensional, alternative internal consistency reliability coefficients should be computed based on the parameter estimates of the factor model. Assuming a bifactor model evidenced good fit, and the measure was designed to assess a single construct, omega hierarchical—the proportion of variance of the total scores due to the general factor—should be presented. Omega—the proportion of variance of the total scores due to all factors—also should be reported in that it represents a more traditional view of reliability, although it is computed within a factor analytic framework. By presenting both these coefficients and potentially other omega coefficients, the reliability results are less likely to be misinterpreted.     

The relationship between the Woodcock-Johnson psycho-educational battery-revised (early development) and the Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence-revised

The concurrent validity between the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised Tests of Cognitive Ability (WJ-R, COG) (Early Development) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R) was examined. These two measures were administered in two separate sessions in counterbalanced order to 30 normal 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old subjects from the Midwest. Findings suggested that the WJ-R Broad Cognitive Ability (BCA) and the WPPSI-R Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) and Verbal IQ (VIQ) were significantly correlated, but that the mean BCA scores on the WJ-R (COG) were significantly below the mean FSIQ scores on the WPPSI-R by only - 4.50 standard score points. No age or sex differences were found on either the WJ-R (COG) or the WPPSI-R. Significant correlations were found between the WJ-R (COG) BCA and the following WJ-R (COG) Broad Ability Factor scores: Long-Term Retrieval, Short-Term Memory, Auditory Processing, and one test called Picture Vocabulary representing comprehension-knowledge. A significant correlation was also found between the WPPSI-R Performance IQ (PIQ) and the WJ-R (COG) Visual Processing cluster. Findings are discussed in terms of the theories of intelligence underlying each test. Implications for assessment of preschoolers under PL 99–457 also are discussed.     

The normative and structural properties of the children's Nowicki-Strickland scale of internal-external control: Children with adjustment problems

One hundred thirty-five children with adjustment problems, referred to a semiresidential educational setting, were evaluated utilizing the Children's Nowicki-Strickland Scale of Internal-External Control (N-S Scale). Pretest scores were factor analyzed, revealing two correlated factors (20 items): (a) general feelings of helplessness in interpersonal relationships, and (b) general feelings of lack of control over events or problems. The 20-item reduced scale was found to be more reliable, especially at the younger ages, and reliability data are provided for each scale. Results are discussed relative to previous research findings and suggestions for further research are offered.     

Socioeconomic status and receptive vocabulary development: Replication of the parental investment model with Chilean preschoolers and their families

Drawing on the first wave of data from the Chilean Longitudinal Study for Early Childhood the current study examined the relation between family socioeconomic status (SES) and children's receptive Spanish vocabulary, and whether these relations were mediated by physical features of the home environment, parent–child interactions, and participation in center-based child care. The results of path analyses (n = 1589) estimating direct and indirect effects of SES on children's receptive vocabulary test scores provided evidence of partial mediation through indices of standard of living and parents’ level of cognitive and linguistic stimulation in the home. This study is among the first to replicate with a non-U.S. sample, a well-established linkage among SES, family-level conditions and processes, and young children's language outcomes.