Progression and variability of competitive performance of Olympic swimmers

Estimates of progression and variability of athletic performance in competitions are useful for researchers and practitioners interested in factors that affect performance. We used repeated-measures mixed modelling to analyse 676 official race times of 26 US and 25 Australian Olympic swimmers in the 12-month period leading up to the 2000 Olympic Games. Progression was expressed as percent changes in mean performance; variability was expressed as the coefficient of variation in performance of an individual swimmer between races. Within competitions, both nations showed similar improvements in mean time from heats through finals (overall 1.2%; 95% confidence limits 1.1 to 1.3%). Mean competition time also improved over 12 months by a similar amount in both nations (0.9%; 95% confidence limits 0.6 to 1.2%). The US swimmers showed a greater improvement between the finals (a difference of 0.5%; 95% confidence limits ?0.2 to 1.1%), which paralleled changes in the medal haul of the two nations. The coefficient of variation in performance time for a swimmer between races was 0.60% (95% confidence limits 0.56 to 0.65%) within a competition and 0.80% (95% confidence limits 0.73 to 0.86%) between competitions. Our results show that: (a) to stay in contention for a medal, an Olympic swimmer should improve his or her performance by ～1% within a competition and by ～1% within the year leading up to the Olympics; (b) an additional enhancement of ～0.4% (one-half the between-competition variability) would substantially increase the swimmer's chances of a medal.     

Progression and variability of competitive performance of Olympic swimmers

Estimates of progression and variability of athletic performance in competitions are useful for researchers and practitioners interested in factors that affect performance. We used repeated-measures mixed modelling to analyse 676 official race times of 26 US and 25 Australian Olympic swimmers in the 12-month period leading up to the 2000 Olympic Games. Progression was expressed as percent changes in mean performance; variability was expressed as the coefficient of variation in performance of an individual swimmer between races. Within competitions, both nations showed similar improvements in mean time from heats through finals (overall 1.2%; 95% confidence limits 1.1 to 1.3%). Mean competition time also improved over 12 months by a similar amount in both nations (0.9%; 95% confidence limits 0.6 to 1.2%). The US swimmers showed a greater improvement between the finals (a difference of 0.5%; 95% confidence limits -0.2 to 1.1%), which paralleled changes in the medal haul of the two nations. The coefficient of variation in performance time for a swimmer between races was 0.60% (95% confidence limits 0.56 to 0.65%) within a competition and 0.80% (95% confidence limits 0.73 to 0.86%) between competitions. Our results show that: (a) to stay in contention for a medal, an Olympic swimmer should improve his or her performance by approximately 1% within a competition and by approximately 1% within the year leading up to the Olympics; (b) an additional enhancement of approximately 0.4% (one-half the between-competition variability) would substantially increase the swimmer's chances of a medal.     

Relationship between different push-off variables and start performance in experienced swimmers

Abstract

The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between different variables measured with a force plate during the swimming start push-off phase and start performance presented by times to 5, 10 and 15?m. Twenty-one women from the Slovenian national swimming team performed two different swim starts (freestyle and undulatory) on a portable force plate to a distance further than 15?m. Correlations between push-off variables and times to 5, 10 and 15?m were quantified through Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient (r). The variables that significantly correlated (p?<?.05) to all times measured in the two starts performed were: average horizontal acceleration (freestyle: r?=??0.58 to ?0.71; and undulatory: r?=??0.55 to ?0.66), horizontal take-off velocity (freestyle: r?=??0.56 to ?0.69; and undulatory: r?=??0.53 to ?0.67) and resultant take-off velocity (freestyle: r?=??0.53 to ?0.65; and undulatory: r?=??0.52 to ?0.61). None of the variables derived from the vertical force were correlated to swimming start performance (p?>?.05). Based on the results of this study, we can conclude that horizontal take-off velocity and average horizontal acceleration (calculated as the average horizontal force divided by swimmer's body mass) are the variables most related to swimming start performance in experienced swimmers, and therefore could be the preferred measures to monitor swimmers’ efficiency during the push-off phase.     

Career performance trajectories of Olympic swimmers: Benchmarks for talent development

Abstract

The age-related progression of elite athletes to their career-best performances can provide benchmarks for talent development. The purpose of this study was to model career performance trajectories of Olympic swimmers to develop these benchmarks. We searched the Web for annual best times of swimmers who were top 16 in pool events at the 2008 or 2012 Olympics, from each swimmer's earliest available competitive performance through to 2012. There were 6959 times in the 13 events for each sex, for 683 swimmers, with 10 ± 3 performances per swimmer (mean ± s). Progression to peak performance was tracked with individual quadratic trajectories derived using a mixed linear model that included adjustments for better performance in Olympic years and for the use of full-body polyurethane swimsuits in 2009. Analysis of residuals revealed appropriate fit of quadratic trends to the data. The trajectories provided estimates of age of peak performance and the duration of the age window of trivial improvement and decline around the peak. Men achieved peak performance later than women (24.2 ± 2.1 vs. 22.5 ± 2.4 years), while peak performance occurred at later ages for the shorter distances for both sexes (～1.5–2.0 years between sprint and distance-event groups). Men and women had a similar duration in the peak-performance window (2.6 ± 1.5 years) and similar progressions to peak performance over four years (2.4 ± 1.2%) and eight years (9.5 ± 4.8%). These data provide performance targets for swimmers aiming to achieve elite-level performance.     

Seasonal training and performance of competitive swimmers

To determine the relationship between prescribed training and seasonal-best swimming performance, we surveyed 24 swim coaches and 185 of their age-group and open-class swimmers specializing in sprint (50 and 100 m) and middle-distance (200 and 400 m) events in a summer and winter season. We expressed effects on training as either multiples of swimmers' standard deviations (effect size, ES) or as correlations ( r ). Coaches prescribed higher mileage and longer repetitions of lower intensity to middle-distance swimmers than to sprinters (ES = 0.4-1.5); as competitions approached, repetition intensity and duration of rest intervals increased (ES = 0.5-0.9), whereas session and repetition distances decreased (ES = 0.4-1.3). The 95% likely ranges of the true values for these effects were about - 0.3. Weekly mileage swum at an easy or moderate pace remained at almost 60% of the total throughout both seasons. Interval training reduced gradually from 40% of total distance in the build-up to 30% at the end of tapering. Older swimmers had shorter rests and swam more miles ( r = 0.5-0.8). After partialling out the effects of age on performance ( r = 0.7-0.8), better performance was significantly associated only with greater weekly mileage ( r = 0.5-0.8) and shorter duration of rest intervals ( r = 0.6-0.7) in middle-distance swimmers. Weconclude that periodization of training and differences in training between sprint and middle-distance events were broadly in accord with principles of specificity. Strong effects of specificity on performance were not apparent, but weak effects might have been detected with a larger sample.     

Seasonal training and performance of competitive swimmers

To determine the relationship between prescribed training and seasonal-best swimming performance, we surveyed 24 swim coaches and 185 of their age-group and open-class swimmers specializing in sprint (50 and 100 m) and middle-distance (200 and 400 m) events in a summer and winter season. We expressed effects on training as either multiples of swimmers' standard deviations (effect size, ES) or as correlations (r). Coaches prescribed higher mileage and longer repetitions of lower intensity to middle-distance swimmers than to sprinters (ES = 0.4-1.5); as competitions approached, repetition intensity and duration of rest intervals increased (ES = 0.5-0.9), whereas session and repetition distances decreased (ES = 0.4-1.3). The 95% likely ranges of the true values for these effects were about +/- 0.3. Weekly mileage swum at an easy or moderate pace remained at almost 60% of the total throughout both seasons. Interval training reduced gradually from 40% of total distance in the build-up to 30% at the end of tapering. Older swimmers had shorter rests and swam more miles (r = 0.5-0.8). After partialling out the effects of age on performance (r = 0.7-0.8), better performance was significantly associated only with greater weekly mileage (r = 0.5-0.8) and shorter duration of rest intervals (r = 0.6-0.7) in middle-distance swimmers. We conclude that periodization of training and differences in training between sprint and middle-distance events were broadly in accord with principles of specificity. Strong effects of specificity on performance were not apparent, but weak effects might have been detected with a larger sample.     

奥运会与文化经济关系论析

80年代中后期,奥运会对于经济的推动意义成为一个带有表征性的事项,预示着文化经济的形成,奥运会的商业化典型地代表了当今文化经济的特点.文化经济指的是满足人们休闲需要的经济,以及实物经济文化附加值增加的经济.奥运会的文化经济效应揭示了现代体育经济在新经济时代的重要性.     

论现代奥运会与社会经济的关系

阐述现代奥运会与社会经济之间互利双赢的关系,并探讨北京申办2008年奥运会成功对北京,乃至对中国社会经济的促进作用.     

现代奥林匹克运动与政治关系的研究

运用文献资料和逻辑分析等方法,对现代奥林匹克运动与政治关系的研究现状、发展趋势进行了分析和解读。对增强世界人民的团结,促进体育事业的发展,国民身体素质的提高以及世界的和平与发展具有重大的现实意义。     

我国优秀残疾人游泳运动员特质运动自信心和运动可能自我状况相关研究

采用特质运动员自信心量表(ASCI)及运动可能自我量表(EPSI),对我国优秀残疾人游泳运动员运动任务自信心、运动应对自信心以及目前与未来的可能自我状况进行测查,分别从残疾人运动员心理特征和游泳项目特点两个不同视角,分析自信心与积极的可能自我对于发挥成绩的重要作用,同时探讨特质运动员自信心对运动可能自我预测作用,以此提高我国优秀残疾人游泳运动员训练和参赛的动机,为我国优秀残疾人游泳运动员训练比赛心理的调节提供参考依据.     

性别秩序与奥林匹克竞赛项目

从性别差异、社会性别认同的角度阐释奥林匹克竞赛项目的变化。从项群理论对运动项目的分类来看,女性更适合参与表现唯美、精准的项目。结果表明::在尊重性别差异、结合运动项目特点、在性别生理、心理差异的基础之上、在奥林匹克文化与民族文化的统一与分野的基础之上、才能实现最有内涵的男女平等。     

Statin use and self-reported swimming performance in US masters swimmers

Exercise and treating hyperlipidaemia with statins are two integral components of the American Heart Association guidelines to reduce cardiovascular risk in adults. Since statins can cause myalgias and myopathies, they could affect the duration or intensity of an exercise regimen. To determine the impact of statin use in adult masters swimmers, a survey was distributed to examine the association between swimming performance and statin usage in adult swimmers (≥35 years). After excluding those with chronic diseases or taking drugs that reduce physical capacity, 749 swimmers (118 taking statins, 73 not taking statins to control elevated cholesterol and 558 controls) were included in a regression model to determine the factors significantly affecting the duration and intensity of swimming workouts. Age and gender were significantly (P ≤ 0.001) associated with the distance swam per 60 min. Younger, male swimmers completed more yards per 60-min workout. Use of statins was not significantly associated with yards swam per 60-min workout. Nor did statin usage affect the number of swim sessions per month or the length of swim session. Evidently, statins do not cause enough fatigue or pain in masters swimmers to require a decrease in the duration or intensity of workouts.     

奥林匹克运动与人的全面发展

从奥林匹克运动特有的功能入手,探讨了该运动对人的体力与智力的发展、竞争意识和实干精神的培养以及社会公正理想的形成等方面所产生的积极影响。     

试用拉弗曲线论全民健身与奥运同行的辩证关系

如何判定、把握和控制全民健身与奥运之间的关系已成为一个现实而又艰巨的课题。笔者借助经济学领域十分著名的拉弗曲线,对该问题进行研究和讨论,最终得出适度全民健身与奥运同行的“度”是能确定和量化的,同时肯定了两者能在一定“度”的前提下,维持一种相辅相成的关系。     

现代奥林匹克运动与全球化的关系

采用文献资料、历史比较、理论分析等方法,以现代性的“实在性力量”的实际作用作为分析的逻辑起点和观点的倚重点,集中阐述现代奥林匹克运动与全球化之间的关系。一方面,功利性的资本主义经济,将奥运会拉入商业化的经济漩涡,积极为经济全球化服务;另一方面,奥运会又通过自己的凝聚力、影响力和连带力,促进了经济的全球发展;同时,奥运会还通过现代奥林匹克理念和精神,抚慰了经济全球化后果造成的心灵创伤。     

论奥林匹克教育与人文奥运的关系

本文从3方面探讨奥林匹克教育与人文奥运之间的关系,即从奥林匹克思想体系出发,认为奥林匹克教育的主要内容是人文奥运的坚实思想基础;从奥林匹克活动体系出发,认为奥林匹克教育的载体是实现人文奥运的重要途径;奥林匹克教育的主体与人文奥运的主体具有一致性.奥林匹克教育是实现人文奥运的重要途径,人文奥运是奥林匹克教育的归宿.人文奥运应该关注运动员、观众、奥运会全体工作人员和举办城市市民等4个群体,这对于推广奥林匹克运动、弘扬奥林匹克精神和北京2008奥运会的成功举办具有重要的理论意义和现实意义.     

Monitoring seasonal and long-term changes in test performance in elite swimmers

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to characterize changes and variability in test performance of swimmers within and between seasons over their elite competitive career. Forty elite swimmers (24 male, 16 female) performed a 7×200-m incremental swimming step test several times each 6-month season (10±5 tests, spanning 0.5–6.0?y). Mixed linear modeling provided estimates of percent change in the mean and individual responses (within-athlete variation as a coefficient of variation) for measures based on submaximal performance (fixed 4-mM lactate), maximal performance (the seventh step) and lean mass (from skinfolds and body mass). Submaximal and maximal swim speed increased within each season from pre to taper phase by ～2.2% for females and ～1.5% for males (95% confidence limits ±1.0%), with variable contributions from stroke rate and stroke length. Most of the gains in speed were lost in the off-season, leaving a net average annual improvement of ～1.0% for females and ～0.6% for males (±1.0%). For submaximal and maximal speed, individual variation between phases was ±2.2% and the typical measurement error was ±0.80%. Step test and anthropometric measures can be used to confidently monitor progressions in swimmers in an elite training program within and between seasons.     

运动认知、情绪与竞技水平的关系性研究

为了明确运动认知、情绪及竞技水平的关系,通过问卷调查、文献资料和数理统计等方法,对79名国家现役优秀跆拳道运动员进行了调查研究。结果表明:运动认知和情绪对运动员的竞技水平存在显著的直接效应,且具有典型的预测效应,其中,运动认知对竞技水平还存在显著的间接性影响(0.241),情绪成为一个重要的调节变量。同时,在对运动认知和情绪对竞技水平的各路径分析中,仅社会期待焦虑未呈现显著性,其他各维度均表现出显著性的作用。为此,建议重视竞技运动中运动认知和情绪的作用及其两者之间的关系,将认知和情绪作为运动员竞技水平的重要预测和控制变量。     

奥林匹克运动与城市文化初探

现代化的城市发展,速度和效率是关键的,其实,相比较城市发展的硬件,城市现代化建设的“软件”——城市文化,以及作为城市文化核心的“城市精神”也是至关重要的。奥林匹克运动作为世界性的体育文化形式在城市文化建设的过程中有其不可替代的作用。本文提出奥林匹克运动与城市文化发展的关系,在回顾古奥运会与古希腊城邦制的内在联系的基础上,探讨了现代奥林匹克运动对城市建设的意义。     

Ability of test measures to predict competitive performance in elite swimmers

The purpose of this study was to quantify the relationship between changes in test measures and changes in competition performance for individual elite swimmers. The 24 male and 16 female swimmers, who were monitored for 3.6 years (s = 2.5), raced in a major competition at the end of each 6-month season (3.6 competitions, s = 2.2). A 7 x 200-m incremental swimming step-test and anthropometry were conducted in up to four training phases each season. Correlations of changes in step-test and anthropometry measures between training phases and seasons with changes in competition performance between seasons were derived with repeated-measures mixed-modelling and linear regression. Changes in competition performance were best tracked by changes in test measures between taper phases. The best single predictor of competition performance was skinfolds for females (r = -0.53). The best predictor from the step-test was stroke rate at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol x l(-1) (females: r = 0.46; males: r = 0.41); inclusion of the second-best step-test predictor in a multiple linear regression improved the correlations (females: r = 0.52 with speed in the seventh step included; males: r = 0.58 with peak lactate concentration included). In conclusion, a combination of fitness and technique factors is important for competitive performance. The step-test is a useful adjunct in a swimmer's training preparation for tracking large changes in performance.