Supply and demand for teachers: is open and distance learning an answer?

Abstract

The sheer number of teachers required to cater for an unprecedented increase in enrolment in developing countries, and corresponding continuous professional development to improve teaching and learning, remain a major problem. Given this problem, I argue that traditional face-to-face training of teachers no longer suffices to manage imbalances in the supply of and demand for teachers in South Africa, and hence the need for open and distance learning. I further argue that the allocation of resources to higher education institutions for teacher training using distance education within South Africa, if not reviewed, will constrain the quality and capacity of institutions to respond adequately to future teacher shortages. I conclude that the discourse on teacher supply and demand should be tempered with awareness of the looming crisis of teacher retention that is always at the periphery of the planning of, and discourse on teacher provision in the country.     

Teacher education for a democratic society in England and South Africa

This paper considers the role of teacher education in England and South Africa in relation to education for democratic citizenship. It argues that teacher education should play a positive role in this respect but there has often been a contradiction between the structures and practices of teacher education and democratic forms of education. The paper analyses teacher education policy in both countries in the light of these arguments. It then goes on to discuss the practice of teacher education in both countries in relation to existing literature and evidence and interviews with student teachers at two universities in England and two in South Africa.     

Insights from South African students preparing for early childhood teaching: contexts neglected in teacher preparation

The preparation of teachers for diversity within and between schools is a growing focus in teacher education worldwide, and particularly in South Africa, where the education landscape has shifted dramatically since the democratic elections of 1994. While diversity is a recurring theme in the literature, the matter of contextual diversity still offers serious challenges to teacher education. This paper focuses on the urgent need to prepare teachers for all school contexts in South Africa, particularly those where neglect carrying over from Apartheid inequalities make failure and a sense of inferiority the norm. It uses critical theory and the capabilities approach to analyse extracts from discussions with early years’ student teachers which express needs with regard to preparation for specific situations faced during field experience with young children. The analysis shows that these students are not adequately prepared to teach in the previously disadvantaged schools which cater for the majority of South Africa’s learners, and that there is a disjuncture between preparation received in the lecture room and realities encountered in the field. It argues for a shift in emphasis from teacher education models which construct middle class classrooms as ideal to those which build quality education for disadvantaged learners, rural contexts, and African language speakers.     

Teacher Development and Change in South Africa: A critique of the appropriateness of transfer of northern/western practice

This paper discusses the differential distribution of opportunities for professional development of science teachers in post-apartheid South Africa. It is argued that northern/western ideas about teacher change and development are poorly suited to modelling practices and challenges for those who were historically disadvantaged. The environment in which teachers work-physical, social and political-act to select a more limited repertoire of behaviour than those providing in-service might imagine. The paper proposes that evolutionary ideas on teacher change and development offer a more effective model of the constraints under which teachers work. These ideas have general application to educational systems in sub-Saharan Africa. The implications for policy are a need to research current practices more thoroughly and to facilitate change through modest steps.     

The potential of teaching schools in enabling student teacher learning for the teaching profession

In 2011 the Integrated Strategic Planning Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa was promulgated. This framework proposes the establishment of teaching schools to strengthen pre-service teacher education. This study arises from this initiative. A generic qualitative study was undertaken to explore the views of research participants from selected teacher education institutions and schools in South Africa on the potential of teaching schools to enable student teacher learning for the teaching profession. The key findings are that teaching schools can potentially make a distinctive contribution towards enabling student teacher learning for the teaching profession through student teachers experiencing good teaching in a model environment and through coordinating experiences in coursework and at the school. The discussion of the findings points to the distinctive potentialities of teaching schools for strengthening teacher education. The notion of hybridity and third space is invoked as a heuristic to shed light on the developing of a true collaborative relationship between the teacher education institution and the teaching school for enabling student teacher learning for the teaching profession.     

Teacher educators’ professional journeys: pedagogical and systemic issues affecting role perceptions

ABSTRACT

Teacher educators in many countries share similar concerns as they aspire to improve education for learners and stimulate interest in further study and careers. The roles and professional development of school teachers have been researched, but little attention has been given to teacher educators. Using a small-scale, illuminative study in England and South Africa, this paper examines pedagogical implications of progression from classroom teacher to teacher educator-tutor. Systemic issues include attitudes to personal scholarship in moving to high stakes academic environments requiring research. In both countries, there were issues of student teachers’ subject knowledge and their capacity to translate knowledge for learners. South African teacher educators were concerned about student teachers’ lack of appreciation of the integrity of conceptual understanding and sequencing of topic content. Implications for the professional development of teacher educators and their role identities are considered.     

Teachers as memory makers: Testimony in the making of a new history in South Africa

This article examines the use of testimony in the making of a new history in South Africa, situating this phenomenon in the context of public construction of memory and identifying history teachers as critical to the process. Through an ethnographic study of 16 schools that illuminates the use of teacher testimony in Cape Town history classrooms, the authors explore the nuanced use of testimony as a pedagogic tool and probe the role of history teachers as memory makers. Finally, this article assesses implications of teachers creating space for dialogical memory making in post-apartheid South Africa and outlines lessons of this experience for other countries in democratic transition.     

Managing teacher retention in a rural school district in South Africa

Retaining quality teachers is a global challenge for schools, particularly those in rural districts. A nation-wide study conducted by the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) found that 55 % of teachers in South Africa would leave teaching if they could. Resignation was found to be one of the three largest causes of attrition (Hall et al. Potential attrition in education: the impact of job satisfaction, morale, workload and HIV/AIDS. Report presented to the ELRC by the Human Sciences Research Council and the Medical Research Council of South Africa, Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2005). This paper reports findings of a qualitative multi-case study of 15 schools in Moretele, part of a rural district—Bojanala—in the North-West province of South Africa. The aim of the study was to determine factors that influence teacher retention and the teacher retention strategies used by principals. The study also ascertained principals’ perceptions of their effectiveness in managing teacher retention. Data were collected through individual and focus group interviews of purposefully selected school principals. Findings suggest that rural schools have unique challenges that tend to militate against teacher retention. Reported barriers to teacher retention relate to the policy and procedures framework, working conditions in schools, socio-economic push–pull factors, teachers’ personal circumstances, and the role ambiguity of principals. The key recommendation made is that the staffing function as an aspect of Human Resource Management should be decentralized. School Governing Bodies must be empowered to make teacher-retention decisions and facilitate related activities of school principals.     

Understanding teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy in inclusive education: implications for pre-service and in-service teacher education

Although there are clear differences in national policies regarding inclusive education, the international debate has not fully considered their impact on implementation within different countries, for example on teacher education. This paper reports on results from a comparative study of in-service teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy in implementing inclusive practices in South Africa and Finland and its implications for teacher education in these countries. A sample of 319 South African and 822 Finnish primary and secondary education teachers completed a questionnaire containing a scale measuring sentiments, attitudes and concerns on inclusive education as well as a scale measuring teachers’ self-efficacy in implementing inclusive practices. A comparative analysis indicated that whereas the overall sentiments towards disabilities were positive in both countries, teachers had many concerns about the consequences of including children with disabilities in their classrooms. While the most positive aspect of self-efficacy among the South African teachers was their self-efficacy in managing behaviour, the Finnish teachers saw this as their weakest point. Self-efficacy, in particular efficacy in collaboration, was clearly related to overall attitudes towards inclusion. The implications of these findings for pre-service and in-service teacher education are discussed.     

南非教师教育新政策述评——构建平等与多元的师资培训体系

1994年以来,为应对教师数量的急剧增多,提升师资培训的质量与效益,南非政府颁布了多项教师教育新政策。这些新政策的颁布不仅解决了南非教师教育的多样化需求,同时建立了一个严格的管理和规范教师教育的体系。这是南非教育史上首次形成平等、多元、反种族隔离的师资培训新政策。     

Positioning the individual teacher in school-based learning for inclusion

This paper reports on a critical ethnographic case study investigating teacher learning in a primary school in South Africa. A qualitative research methodology within a cultural–historical activity theoretical (CHAT) framework was employed. The learning trajectories of two teachers are presented spawning questions on how the empirical relationship between individual (teacher) and social (school as system) could be represented within CHAT. It is possible to argue theoretically for an agentive positioning for the two teachers allowing for the possibility that elements of this project will be sustained.     

Selecting Teaching Practice schools across social contexts: conceptual and policy challenges from South Africa

In a country like South Africa, as in many other countries around the world, there is an imperative to prepare student teachers for a wide variety of social contexts, as part of breaking the cycle of disadvantage for poor learners. This article explores the challenge of placing student teachers for their field experience in schools that differ greatly in terms of their social and educational conditions. Drawing on interviews with teacher educators at one university, the article argues that criteria for identifying suitable schools for Teaching Practice do not easily support placements in schools in difficult conditions. Conceptual models of teacher education are explored, with a view to developing a model that supports teacher preparation for diversity. Policy recommendations are offered to support the preparation of excellent teachers for all schooling contexts.     

The Pedagogical Orientations of South African Physical Sciences Teachers Towards Inquiry or Direct Instructional Approaches

In recent years, inquiry-based science instruction has become widely advocated in science education standards in many countries and, hence, in teacher preparation programmes. Nevertheless, in practice, one finds a wide variety of science instructional approaches. In South Africa, as in many countries, there is also a great disparity in school demographic situations, which can also affect teaching practices. This study investigated the pedagogical orientations of in-service physical sciences teachers at a diversity of schools in South Africa. Assessment items in a Pedagogy of Science Teaching Test (POSTT) were used to identify teachers’ science teaching orientations, and reasons for pedagogical choices were probed in interviews. The findings reveal remarkable differences between the orientations of teachers at disadvantaged township schools and teachers at more privileged suburban schools. We found that teachers at township schools have a strong ‘active direct’ teaching orientation overall, involving direct exposition of the science followed by confirmatory practical work, while teachers at suburban schools exhibit a guided inquiry orientation, with concepts being developed via a guided exploration phase. The study identified contextual factors such as class size, availability of resources, teacher competence and confidence, time constraints, student ability, school culture and parents’ expectations as influencing the methods adopted by teachers. In view of the recent imperative for inquiry-based learning in the new South African curriculum, this study affirms the context specificity of curriculum implementation (Bybee 1993) and suggests situational factors beyond the curriculum mandate that need to be addressed to achieve successful inquiry-based classroom instruction in science.     

A posthumanist approach to environmental education in South Africa: implications for teachers,teacher development,and teacher training programs

As we enter the sixth great mass extinction event, an event that points to humanity’s exploitative attitude towards nature, posthumanist ethics offers a different way of engaging with the world, a way which has clear and extensive implications for the way environmental education is taught in South African schools. However, given the official curriculum and assessment practices currently in use in South Africa, can a posthumanist approach to environmental education actually work within the current educational framework of discrete discipline/subject areas and specializations? The paper diffractively engages with the Department of Basic Education National Curriculum Statement: Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement: Foundation Phase Grades R-3: Life Skills for South Africa (the phase where environmental education is most likely to take place), and superpositions this text with a research study on environmental education undertaken in Canada and key posthumanist notions as they relate to environmental education. The paper concludes with a section on the implications for teachers, teacher development, and teacher training programs (not solely in South Africa) of using such an approach in the teaching of environmental studies.     

History curriculum and teacher training: shaping a democratic future in post-apartheid South Africa?

ABSTRACT

Issues of transitional justice are central to countries moving away from identity-based conflict. Research tends to focus on the most well-known forms of transitional justice, like truth commissions. Far less attention has been given to education as a form of transitional justice, and even less to teacher professional development, even though education is central to signalling the new society and teachers are expected to become agents of change in their classrooms. This article focusses on history curriculum change in post-apartheid South Africa. We show how the post-apartheid South African government developed a human rights-based history curriculum but failed to support teachers to implement it. Aspects of these inadequacies included a failure to take into account the de-skilling of a large segment of the teaching population under apartheid and teachers’ personal legacies of that era. Through a review of the teacher professional development programme, Facing the Past, this article demonstrates the possibility to implement teacher training programmes attuned to the particular needs of a transitional justice environment.     

Things Fall Apart and Come Together: Using the Visual for Reflection in Alternative Teacher Education Programmes

In this article, we focus on the use of the visual for reflection in ‘alternative’ pre‐service teacher education and, in particular, we address the question: How and what can we learn about teacher education using the visual? By way of illustration, we focus on the use of pre‐service teachers’ photographs in a public exhibition, participatory video documentary production and pre‐service teachers’ use of photographs in their professional teaching portfolios. The article draws from research done in relation to three alternative pre‐service teacher education projects based at McGill University in Canada and the University of KwaZulu‐Natal in South Africa.     

Including Learners with Intellectual Disabilities: stressful for teachers?

Since 1994 the demand to educate learners with special needs within mainstream classrooms in South Africa has continued to grow and the implementation of inclusive education is in the final process of legislation. The result has been that an increasing number of learners with disabilities, including intellectual disabilities, are being included in mainstream classrooms. International research indicates that it is especially the acceptance of learners with intellectual disabilities that seems to raise the most sensitive issues for teachers within inclusive classrooms. This research study was designed to investigate the stressors related to the specific situation of including a learner with an intellectual disability in mainstream classrooms and the subsequent stress levels of teachers in the Gauteng and Western Cape provinces of South Africa. The design and methodology of this study was a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. Fifty-five teachers were purposefully selected to complete a questionnaire focusing on the effect of potential stressors on teachers when including a learner with an intellectual disability. In-depth structured interviews were conducted with 10 of these teachers. This project is highly significant as policies of inclusion rely on teachers' acceptance of them, belief in their worth, and ability to cope. An understanding of the conditions that are likely to cause teachers most stress during inclusion will allow for more appropriate teacher training and for more focused support to teachers in inclusive classrooms.     

Reflections on improving teacher performance

Abstract

The debate about declining education standards and quality has been going on for decades. At the centre of this debate has been teacher performance. But the blame for the decline in educational standards and quality of education in South Africa cannot be placed squarely on the shoulders of teachers alone. Society as a whole must accept its share of responsibility too. For the decline or the improvement of the standard and quality of education depends on the roles played by teachers, parents, learners, tertiary institutions, non-governmental organisations and the government. To blame teachers alone misses the core problem, which is at the root of the continuing decline in educational standards and quality in a country which has the biggest economy in Africa. To stem this tide will require a collaborative effort by all these role players. But, more importantly, it will require the restructuring of how teachers are trained, as well as the transformation of school governing bodies, so as to enable them to play the role the South African Schools Act intended them to play. The profession must also be made attractive in order to attract talented matriculants. This will entail improvements in the salary structure and conditions of service of teachers. It will also be necessary to revamp the current teacher in-service training and development system to enable it to play a more meaningful role in assisting teachers to continually refresh and retool their skills in order to cope with the ever-changing teaching and learning environment.     

Teachers as change agents in making teaching inclusive in some selected rural schools of Limpopo Province,South Africa: implications for teacher education

ABSTRACT

This paper reports on teachers as change agents to implement inclusive education in some rural secondary schools in South Africa. The study followed a qualitative case study research methodology. Eight teachers were recruited to form part of the study through a purposive sampling strategy. Data were collected through interviews, observations and document analysis. The study found that: (a) teachers were resilient in the face of lack of resources to implement inclusive education, (b) teachers did their best despite lack of capacity to implement inclusive education, (c) teachers showed the willingness to effect change, and (d) when they collaborated with others, they achieved more. These findings have at least four implications for teacher education: One that institutions should train teachers to survive with meagre resources. Two, professional development initiatives should be planned to capacitate teachers on inclusive education. Three, teacher education institutions should develop programmes that include models of teacher agency such as the one displayed by these teachers. Four, teacher education should develop programmes that teach teachers how to collaborate with parents and other stakeholders to make inclusive education possible.     

Preparing Teachers for Anti‐oppressive Education: International movements

While theories and recommendations continue to proliferate in the educational research literature on what it means to teach towards social justice and to prepare teachers for such teaching, so do concerns that these theories and recommendations fail to account for the ways that the contexts of teaching—cultural contexts, national contexts, political contexts—always affect teaching in idiosyncratic, unpredictable and even contradictory ways. Given that much educational research fails to trouble the US‐centric nature of prevailing conceptions of social justice and teacher education, it is important to learn about the unique as well as shared challenges facing teacher educators around the globe. In this article, teacher educators from Asia, Africa, North America and South America offer a sampling of initiatives in anti‐oppressive teacher education; that is, initiatives to prepare teachers to teach various subject matters to various age groups, addressing various forms of oppression in various cultural and community contexts.