Investigating the spectral capability of QuickBird data to detect archaeological remains buried under vegetated and not vegetated areas

The spectral capability of satellite QuickBird imagery for the identification of archaeological marks linked to the presence of buried remains is here discussed for two medieval archaeological sites in the South of Italy. The considered test sites present complex topographical and morphological features, typical of many medieval settlements, which make archaeological prospection with any remote sensing technologies difficult. Results from the performed investigations showed that the satellite QuickBird imagery can be a valuable data source for reconstructing the urban shape of buried settlements up to single building scale. Such analyses can be useful for detecting locations and extracting features of archaeological sites especially prior to any excavation work and for increasing the cultural value of historical sites.     

Soviet military maps and archaeological survey in the Samarkand region

In Central Asia, the introduction of mechanised farming and the transformation of the landscape caused by agricultural intensification over the last 50 years have resulted in the massive destruction of archaeological remains. In this paper, we focus on an underestimated and unexploited type of remote sensing for the study of landscape change and anthropic impact on cultural heritage: 1:10,000 Soviet military maps of the 1950s. We present their use in the case study of the Archaeological Map of the Samarkand region. We argue that their precision and the early date at which they were produced make it possible to employ them as a reference tool for systematic survey and archaeological heritage management in Central Asia and throughout the former Soviet Union. We discuss the results of an archaeological survey based on these maps and show how they can be used to evaluate the destruction of archaeological mounds during the last 50 years, by contrasting them with modern satellite imagery.     

Multispectral and multiscale remote sensing data for archaeological prospecting in an alpine alluvial plain

This work is part of a multidisciplinary research project, developed in collaboration with archaeologists and geophysical experts, which aims at delineating the spatio-temporal relationships between paleoenvironmental conditions of an alluvial plain in an alpine environment and the human settlements during past ages. The study area is located in the upper Lake Como region at the confluence of the Valtellina (Adda river) and Val Chiavenna (Mera River) valleys in northern Italy. The area is a deltaic zone which was affected by great adjustments due to varying sediment loads and separate parts emerged at different times, thus conditioning the human presence and distribution. Archaeological evidences dating back to the last millennium BC and relicts of Roman ages were discovered in the area, particularly during the 19th century Adda River canalisation. Remotely sensed images taken from space orbiting satellite at different wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, from visible up to thermal infrared, were used to delineate landscape features not easily detected on ground. Geomorphological study of the area was improved by means of historical aerial b/w photographs taken before the Second World War by the Royal Air Force. Ground surveys and proximal sensing measurements, using portable spectral radiometers operating at the same wavelengths as the satellite sensors, were conducted at some experimental sites. Integrated analysis of remote sensing multilevel derived information, cartographic data and archaeological evidences proved to be useful for archaeological research with indications of favourable sites for future exploration in the area.     

Locating Macedonian tombs using predictive modelling

Northern Greece is the main region where more than 90 Macedonian tombs, dated in the late classical and Hellenistic period, have been discovered. Geospatial data processing technologies (GIS), predictive modelling techniques and fuzzy logic were applied to the study area in order to create a predictive model that would be able to provide map regions assigned with specified probability of Macedonian tombs’ occurrence. The model was tested extensively and was validated using a commonly used predictive gain. The results and the evaluation of the model proved the efficiency of its predictive ability in providing answers to a series of questions related to the problem at hand (archaeological research, cultural resource management and protection, land use, etc.).     

Surveying the roofs of Rome

This study is aimed at investigating a portion of the city of Rome by means of remotely sensed Multispectral Infrared And Visible Imaging Spectrometer (MIVIS) data. A particular attention was devoted to building roofs described not only as the last defining touch given to a building, the aesthetic conclusion to a whole construction process, but also as expression and sign of a society's level of civilisation, culture and technical skill. Through the classification of objects and materials, we propose to combine history and science as different ways of interpreting a city, in this case Rome, and to implement an image processing technique as an effective tool in urban planning.     

Non-invasive methods for characterisation of printed cultural heritage

The quality of a book reprint depends on several factors, e.g. paper, typesetting, reproduction of illustrations, printing and bookbinding. The quality of the 1958 and 1988 reprints of the fairytale edition from 1944 designed by the Slovenian architect Jo?e Ple?nik was studied using standard and other non-invasive testing methods, e.g. microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, sonic velocity, Young's modulus of elasticity, surface topography and image analysis. The chemical, physical and colorimetric properties of papers and typographic tonal density were analysed. The results showed that the reprints do not correspond to the originals. Some of the differences in the reprints, if compared with the original (e.g. typographic tonal density), could have been easily avoided, while others (e.g. structural and optical properties of paper) remain unavoidable, mainly due to the influence of internal and external factors on the ageing. The ageing process influences paper properties, since optical properties deteriorate in time. It has been concluded that a precise and systematic study of the properties of an old book should be performed before the preparation of a reprint. The results of the research have shown that the applied methods are useful and satisfactory for the characterisation of the paper properties and typography, and can be of use at the analysis of printing ink and illustration reproduction.     

Analysis of bacterial community composition in concretions formed on the USS Arizona,Pearl Harbor,HI

Invertebrate fouling communities called concretions form on archaeological metals submerged in marine environments. The concretions are inhabited by bacteria that play a role in formation and persistence of the concretion layer. We analyzed the bacterial community in concretion samples collected from the external hull of the USS Arizona in Pearl Harbor, HI. Variability in the size of the bacterial community was high and the concretions appear to harbor approximately 10⁶ bacteria/g. Analysis of 16S rDNA clones indicated that the community consisted of bacteria related to three phyla: Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria. The low bacterial diversity may indicate a late-succession stage community within the stable concretion. Alternatively, the low diversity could be the result of residual antifouling chemicals applied to the ship hull. It is likely that the bacterial community detected in these concretions plays an important role in the continuing corrosion of the USS Arizona.     

Ancient materials specificities for their synchrotron examination and insights into their epistemological implications

The synchrotron characterisation of archaeological and heritage materials has undergone a steep development in the past years, among a range of other advanced characterisation techniques. For synchrotron techniques alone, close to a hundred articles were published in 2011 on such materials, prompting new developments at large scale facilities. However, few publications have discussed the speci?c characteristics of heritage materials in their advanced spectroscopic and imaging study. Here, we suggest that a greater consideration be put on the speci?cities of ancient materials and their theoretical implications on the analytical process. In particular, we discuss the importance of the a posteriori framework of the study of heterogeneous materials considered in their historicity as structuring parameters of their study. Major implications are the relevance of trace analyses, those of majors and we suggest, more importantly, the dynamics between both endpoints. The on-going development of multimodal spectral imaging appears as a way to better address corresponding difficulties. Epistemologically, we suggest that a re?exive approach be developed to explain, structure and possibly contribute to narrowing down the ?eld of possible methodological research.     

Ground level ozone exposure and distribution over the historical Peninsula of Istanbul

In this study, passive samplers were used to measure ozone exposure distribution maps over the historical peninsula of Istanbul, Turkey. The study area is partially important due to the presence of cultural and historical buildings and structures distributed all over the peninsula. Unesco's World Heritage list covers four zones located in this historical peninsula in Istanbul. It is necessary to evaluate the pollution distribution in high resolution to construct effective risk management strategies. For this purpose, 50 sampling stations were installed within the study area. Three sampling campaigns within different seasons (summer, winter and fall) showing different ozone distribution characteristics were carried out. Seasonal measurements of ozone exposure values were used to obtain a yearly exposure level, which is an important part of risk characterization. Seasonal ozone exposure maps over the historical peninsula were obtained using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) based interpolation models with high resolution. Risk maps including five regions, based on ozone exposure levels were created. Structures and historical regions located within these risk zones were identified. Based on the defined exposure regions, we found that the Archaeological Park, one of the items on UNESCO's list, is located within the most risky region.     

Archaeomagnetic investigation of a metallurgical furnace in Pisa (Italy)

An archaeological excavation has been carried out at Pisa (Italy), unearthing an ancient metallurgical workshop. Since archaeological burnt materials provide important records of direction and intensity of the Earth's magnetic field in the past and they can be used to better improve geomagnetic secular variation curves (SVCs), an archaeomagnetic study has been performed. This small copper-alloy furnace presents a circular concave shape covered with a thin layer of mortar, with some traces of heated clay surrounding the feature that confirms the high temperature reached inside it. Archaeological context dating points to the last firing of the furnace between the last quarter of the 13th century and the first quarter of 14th century AD, when then the metallurgical workshop was transformed in a warehouse. Archaeomagnetic sampling has been performed using the modified Thellier method, by collecting several, large and independently oriented aliquots of heated clay, forming the bottom part of the circular wall of the structure. Laboratory treatments have been conducted at the IGG-CNR ARCHEO_LAB (Pisa, Italy) and at St. Maur Palaeomagnetic laboratory (Paris, France). Analytical measurements of the thermo-remanent magnetization index acquired from the samples have been performed using a large cell induction magnetometer for large samples, and the characteristic remanent magnetization (ChRM) has been successfully isolated after an alternate field demagnetization cleaning procedure for each sample. The final mean archaeomagnetic direction has been calculated at sampling site (D = 6.9°; I = 52.8°; N = 9; k = 305; α₉₅ = 2.6°) following the Fisher Statistics, and it exhibits a perfect agreement with some coeval already published directions obtained from Mt. Arso lava flows, these latter being an important anchor point in the preliminary Italian secular variation curve. Comparison with the preliminary Italian SVC, the French SVC and the SCHA.DIF.3K archaeomagnetic regional model have permitted to define an archaeomagnetic absolute age confirming the conventional archaeological age, underlining the importance of this result into the Italian archaeomagnetic data set.     

Tree roots and damages in the Jewish catacombs of Villa Torlonia (Roma)

Damages to hypogeal archaeological monuments, caused by the growth of tree roots, are frequently reported in the city of Rome. Problems of compatibility between trees and underground structures may become complex in the case of historical gardens. The Jewish catacombs of Villa Torlonia show relevant conservation problems, some of them arising from damages due to root growth, and consolidating interventions seem to be urgent. Some species in the gardens, especially Ficus carica L., but also Quercus ilex L. and Pinus pinea L., have developed a strong root system, growing for many meters in lateral distance and for some meters vertically. The plants responsible for the various alterations were identified by their wood anatomy and a methodology to treat similar problems has been proposed. Data collected aim to avoid errors made in managing the plant cover of an archaeological site.     

A study on a set of drawings by Parmigianino: integration of art-historical analysis with imaging spectroscopy

Due to the extreme fragility of paper-based artefacts, few techniques are available for scientific investigation and characterisation of ancient drawings or paper-based artefacts. Image reflectance spectroscopy represents an almost unique tool for scientific analysis on precious drawings, for which even micro-invasive techniques of analysis cannot be used. Indeed, beside the high fragility of the support, drawings and graphical works are typically characterised by a very limited number of artistic materials, which in principle could give information on the work of art. In this paper an interdisciplinary study on a set of drawings by Parmigianino (1503–1540), selected from the collection of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, is presented. Non-invasive measurements of image spectroscopy (IS) have been employed to support the work of art-historians in the critical re-examination and interpretation of the graphical work of the artist. The multispectral analysis has been carried out over the extended spectral region (400–1700 nm), in order to provide simultaneous indications both on the pictorial materials and on possibly underlying hatches. The data processing has been performed by means of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and the elaboration of each case has been addressed to specifically respond to questions related to the art-historical problem.     

Roman bricks from the Lagoon of Venice: a chemical characterization with methods of multivariate analysis

From 18 archaeological sites of the Lagoon of Venice 75 bricks belonging to Roman and medieval building levels have been analysed. Chemical composition and geometric measures allow the characterization of a group of 24 Roman bricks of Imperial age. The group formed by means of fuzzy c-means cluster analysis applied on chemical data have been tested by principal component analysis and finally subjected to discriminant analysis to estimate the relative weights of original variables and classify new elements. Correlations among the data of the major chemical elements confirm the reliability of the complex of chemical data. The aim of this research was to obtain a chemical characterization of Roman bricks (and later, of the medieval ones) coming from the lagoon of Venice thus making it possible: 1) to recognize the age of a brick by means of its chemical analysis; 2) to date the layers of archaeological excavations or the ground where there are medieval building foundations by means of membership bricks; 3) to calculate the rate of local ground lowering in the elapsed years by the difference in level from one layer to another; 4) to estimate local rates of land subsidence by comparison with mean values already known.     

Non-destructive methods for chemical, optical, colorimetric and typographic characterisation of a reprint

The quality of production (e.g. paper, typesetting, reproduction of illustrations, printing and bookbinding) of a book (reprint) is very important. The quality of a 1978 reprint of a book from 1921 was studied using standard and non-destructive testing methods such as microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. Chemical, physical and colorimetric properties of the papers, colour differences of the prints and typographic tonal density were analysed. Results showed that the reprint is not an identical copy of the original. Some of the differences in the reprint compared with the original (e.g. typographic tonal density) could easily have been avoided while others (e.g. structural and optical properties of paper, colour prints) are unavoidable, mainly because of the influence of internal and external factors on ageing. Ageing influences the properties of paper and colour print: optical and colour properties deteriorate and colour fades. It is concluded that precise and systematic evaluation of the properties of an old book should be carried out before a reprint is prepared. The results of the research, using non-destructive methods such as microscopy, spectroscopy and image analysis, are useful for characterising the properties of paper and printing ink, typography and reproduction of illustrations.     

The cinematic mode of production: towards a political economy of the postmodern

Cinema marks a profound shift in the relation between image and text – indeed it is the watershed of the subjugation of language by image. Cinema as an innovative shift in both industrial capitalism and cultural practice marks, therefore, the restructuring of language function in accord with the changing protocols of techno-capitalism. The ‘talking cure’, otherwise known as psychoanalysis, is itself a symptom of cinema. As a precursor for TV and computing and Internet, cinema transacts value transfer across the image utilising a production process that can be grasped as founded under the rubric of what I call ‘the attention theory of value’. The deterritorialised factory that is the contemporary image, is an essential component of globalisation, neo-imperialism, and militarisation, organising, as it were, the consent (ignorance of) and indeed desire for these latter processes. Thus ‘cinema’, as a paradigm for image-mediated social production, implies a cultural turn for political economics. It also implies that it is the interstitial, informal activities that transpire across the entire surface of the socius as well as in the vicissitudes of the psyche and experience that are the new (untheorised) production sites for global capital – and therefore among the significant sites for the waging of the next revolution.     

Decay regions segmentation from color images of ancient monuments using fast marching method

This work faces the problem of detecting decay zones from color images of stone materials. In Cultural Heritage, the extraction of degradation regions from images of ancient monuments represents an important step forward in studying and analyzing the state of preservation of historical buildings. Generally the decay diagnosis is provided by “naked eye” analysis done by expert scientists “walking around” the artifact and recording the conservation state of each individual element they observe. In addition to this kind of investigation, the application of an image segmentation strategy to color images of stony materials can be used in order to extract regions characterized by a visible chromatic alteration, changes in color, for example, as oxidation or concretion. This paper features a color image segmentation approach founded on the fast marching numerical method. We have applied this technique for its possibility to work locally, that is, only the contour of the region under study is processed. In addition to this method, we present a global approach, that is, the possibility to extract decay regions from the entire image; these regions are spatially disconnected but with similar colorimeter value. The main aim of the present work is to provide a tool that helps the expert to contour the degraded regions. In this sense even if the results of the proposed procedure depend on the expert evaluation, the approach can be a contribution to improve the efficiency of the boundary detection process. The study case concerns the impressive remains of the Roman Theatre in the city of Aosta (Italy). In the image segmentation process the color space L*a*b* is utilized.     

Multispectral data cube acquisition of aligned images for document analysis by means of a filter-wheel camera provided with focus control

Multispectral imaging techniques are widely used to analyse and restore digital images of ancient documents degraded over time. In particular, acquisitions in infrared and ultraviolet bands can reveal information invisible by naked eye, which is not captured by conventional RGB imaging. Multispectral acquisitions are usually performed with filter-wheel cameras that mount a series of interference filters in front of the sensor to select the spectral band in which the document has to be acquired. Due to the use of different filters, the focus of the lens changes and it is necessary to adjust it manually for each filter, because such imaging systems are devoid of automatic focusing. Thus the acquired images may not be perfectly in-focus and have misalignments. In this work we present an automatic solution to acquire a multispectral data cube of aligned images that can be used in document analysis to extract and/or separate information through enhancement techniques. A custom-made motorized autofocus system controlled by software has been installed on a filter-wheel camera, which allows us to acquire in-focus images automatically at each filter changing, and a registration method based on Fourier-Mellin transform aligns these images. A preliminary calibration is performed to set the focusing of each filter with the working distance. As a result, the camera can capture images independently from the contrast of the scene, also in presence of documents with homogeneous texture. The proposed solution reduces considerably the acquisition time and offers a tool to acquire automatically the data cube to be used in further image analysis techniques. The results of experimentations are hereby presented and discussed.     

Searching for the remains of an Early Bronze Age city at Tell Qubr Abu al-’Atiq (Syria) through archaeological investigations and GPR imaging

This article presents results of an archaeo-geophysical investigation carried out in a tell site situated in the Syrian Middle-Euphrates valley within the framework of a Syrian-Spanish archaeological project. In the Near East, Tell is a hill formed by accumulation of muddy sedimentary layers mainly due to the decomposition of mud-bricks in ancient towns. First archaeological works (2005–2008) resulted in significant discoveries such as Early Bronze Age (c. 2600–2400 BC) buildings and pottery. In order to map the entire city, an extensive ground-penetrating radar prospection was undertaken in July 2009. GPR images reveal the existence of unknown buildings, streets and the enclosure wall of the city. Such information adds crucial information to understand the importance of the city in the region.     

Iran: archaeological heritage in crisis: Developing an effective management system for archaeology

The dynamic social development in Iran over the last decades provided the acknowledgement of the archaeological heritage on the one hand, and a confrontation to the current managing system of archaeology on the other. This situation makes it necessary for archaeologists to formulate and implement a systematic regulation in the sphere of protection and management of the archaeological heritage. The fact is that, as the international conventions warn, the archaeological heritage is constantly under threat of destruction, and while in Iran the problem is not new, the destruction is on the increase. The constructions under the developmental projects and at the same time the increase of population are accompanied by the expansion of the new settled areas threaten large areas of archaeological sites. The deep economic crises of the country as well as a pauperization of majority of society, and a low degree of respect for the law, lead to an increase in looting and considerable damage to the archaeological heritage. The goals of this paper are (1) to identify problems that hinder the effectiveness of the Iranian national protection acts, and to suggest some way in which these problems could be remedied, (2) to promote further academic discussions of problems and solutions within archaeology and related fields, and (3) to encourage official authorities and other interest groups to press for changes needed in the Iranian national protection policies, to make it better serve the public interest.     

Identification of the materials used in an Eastern Jin Chinese ink stick

Chinese ink stick has a long history and a special importance in the Chinese culture. For the first time, Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) was used to identify the materials in an ancient Chinese ink stick. Four types of constituents could be detected in the archaeological ink stick of the Eastern Jin period (317–420 AD): (1) borneol (Chinese name bing piàn); (2) compounds related to essential oil or tar of conifer wood: cedrene, aromadendrane, cedrane, cuparene, cedrol, retene, methyl dehydroabietate and 9-methyl retene; (3) marker compounds from animal glue; (4) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from soot. The information obtained through this study provides conclusive evidence for use of additives of borneol and cedar oil, binding media of animal glue and pine wood soot in the ancient ink stick.