Under pressure: How faculty gender and contract uncertainty impact students’ grades

Although rising average grades appear to be common at post-secondary institutions in the U.S., there is still little work examining mechanisms driving this increase in grades. This paper uses data from a public research university to examine one mechanism in particular: instructor level incentives that are linked to gender and contract status. We hypothesize that instructors with more job uncertainty due to their rank will be most incentivized to award higher grades, as this may lead to better evaluations of teaching and an increase in retention probability. Our results indicate that students receive higher grades when their class is taught by a female instructor with more job uncertainty than if the class were taught by a tenured female faculty member. These higher grades appear to reflect more lenient grading rather than better preparation for follow-on courses. However, for students taking classes with male instructors, there is no significant difference across instructor rank in grades received. Our results have important implications for thinking about the role faculty contracts may play in affecting grading distributions.     

The Force of Personality: Gottfried Keller's Educational Philosophy

We set out to identify the benefits and drawbacks of using more than one instructor to teach single section science courses at a large research university. Nine courses were investigated involving widely differing subjects and levels. Teaching models included: sequential teaching with two to six instructors each covering only their own modules, two teachers present in class at all times, and hybrids of these two models. A three-question survey was answered by 957 students and 17 instructors. Dominant advantages identified by both groups were variety of teaching style or perspectives and instructor expertise, with instructors being more likely to identify expertise as the primary advantage. Dominant disadvantages identified were adjustment to teaching style and expectations and confusion and communication issues. Data suggest that advantages are maximized and disadvantages minimized either in courses with two or more instructors interacting and collaborating in class or when special care is taken with coordination and collaboration if the course is sequentially taught. We conclude with specific recommendations to instructors and departments based on evidence from the data.     

Student perception of instructors: the effect of age,gender and political leaning

Abstract

Students were asked to rank instructors, who differed by age, gender and political leaning, by their expected helpfulness, and how much a student expected to learn. Students selected older instructors as those from whom they would learn the most, but chose young instructors as the most helpful. Overall, male instructors were preferred over female instructors, especially when emphasis was placed on learning. The political leaning of the instructor was a discriminating factor in humanities classes, with liberal instructors preferred over conservatives. The preferred age, gender and political leaning patterns were distinctly different for instructors who were helpful, and from those from whom students thought they would learn the most, indicating a dichotomy between perceived helpfulness and learning. The stereotypic images of instructors did not differ significantly by the students’ own gender and academic major, except for male students ranking conservative instructors higher than females. Students do have stereotypical images of instructors based on the instructor’s age, gender and political leaning.     

Instructional practices in reformed undergraduate STEM learning environments: a study of instructor and student behaviors in biology courses

ABSTRACT

Theoretically, organisational culture, instructor training, and learning space design influence how faculty teach STEM courses. Previous studies have used classroom observation protocols to characterise the range of teaching practices in mostly teacher-centered, traditional STEM classrooms. In this study, we examined the classroom behaviour of 13 STEM faculty teaching biology courses in a reformed undergraduate STEM learning environment. Our findings indicate that instructors teaching in this reformed environment guided student learning (58.4?±?1.9%) almost three times more than they presented information (20.0?±?2.2%). Students worked individually or in groups and talked to the whole class (57.1?±?1.8%) 1.5 times more than they received information (35.5?±?1.9%). We found significant positive correlation between ‘instructor presenting’ and ‘students receiving’ information (r?=?0.743, p?=?1.4?×?10^?4) and ‘instructor guiding’ and ‘student working and talking’ in class (r?=?0.605, p?=?7.2?×?10^?5), suggesting that instructors can change their own classroom behaviours and expect concurrent change in their students’ behaviours. Finally, sequencing teaching practices in high active-engagement classrooms showed instructors move and guide student group work and lead whole class discussions before lecturing to students, which could lead to deeper learning of conceptual knowledge. We discuss insights from these findings that have implications for acculturating evidence-based teaching practices in STEM departments.     

Minority student and teaching assistant interactions in STEM

Graduate student teaching assistants from underrepresented groups may provide salient role models and enhanced instruction to minority students in STEM fields. We explore minority student-TA interactions in an important course in the sciences and STEM – introductory chemistry labs – at a large public university. The uncommon assignment method of students to TA instructors in these chemistry labs overcomes selection problems, and the small and active learning classroom setting with required attendance provides frequent interactions with the TA. We find evidence that underrepresented minority students are less likely to drop courses and are more likely to pass courses when assigned to minority TAs, but we do not find evidence of effects for grades and medium-term outcomes. The effects for the first-order outcomes are large with a decrease in the drop rate by 5.5 percentage points on a base of 6 percent, and an increase in the pass rate of 4.8 percentage points on a base of 93.6 percent. The findings are similar when we focus on Latinx student - Latinx TA interactions. The findings are robust to first-time vs. multiple enrollments in labs, specifications with different levels of fixed effects, limited choice of TA race, limited information of TAs, and low registration priority students. The findings have implications for debates over increasing diversity among PhD students in STEM fields because of spillovers to minority undergraduates.     

The generalizability of student ratings of instructors: Item specificity and section effects

A number of recent studies have used generalizability theory to examine the dependability of student ratings of instruction. This study extends this line of research by examining the consistency of ratings between different sections of a course taught in a given semester by the same instructor, and by comparing the performance of global- and attribute-type instructor rating items. Five samples of physics instructors, varying in size from 5 to 12 instructors, were rated by their students on a form containing two global and eight attribute items. Each instructor taught two sections of a course. The study found that the section effect was small (ratings of instructors were consistent across different sections of the same course), and that the generalizability of ratings was substantially influenced by item specificity. For summary purposes, one global item seemed sufficient.     

Playing catch up: A term-level investigation of the racial gap in STEM retention

This paper examines differences in STEM retention between minority and non-minority students enrolled at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) from 1980 through 2006. Using detailed administrative records of undergraduate students, we document that minority students and non-minority students take divergent pathways through the STEM major. Specifically, minority students take fewer lower division STEM courses in their early career, which delays their enrollment in upper division STEM courses and leads to lower graduation probability in STEM within four years and higher dropout rates. We investigate the potential reasons (and/or predictors) for this apparent discrepancy. To do so, we first identify a student’s major-specific Individual Performance Potential (IPP) from lower division course regressions. We find that once we control for the heterogeneity in the IPP’s and a rich set of term level controls, the differences in intermediate outcomes (declared major, STEM course load) between minority and non-minority students largely disappear, but that some of the gap in outcomes persist, with the exception being in graduation from STEM within five years, for which minority students are more likely after controlling for these factors. Our findings suggest that minority STEM majors would benefit from additional support such as early career course advising.     

Comparing the Rigor of Compressed Format Courses to Their Regular Semester Counterparts

This study compared workloads of undergraduate courses taught in 16-week and 8-week sessions. A statistically significant difference in workload was found between the two. Based on survey data from approximately 29,000 students, on average students spent about 17 minutes more per credit per week on 16-week courses than on similar 8-week courses. For selected general education courses taught in both formats, a similar result was obtained. When disaggregating results by subject and instructor, we found that the subject and the instructor of the course are more likely to be the cause of any significant difference in rigor based on workload.     

CREDENTIALS NEEDED FOR TEACHING BIOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY IN THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE

Biology and chemistry instructors at 50 institutions within th North Carolina Community College System were surveyed concerning the types of courses they teach, the diversity of students in their courses, their own academic preparation, how they would have altered their academic preparation for their current position, their preceived value of secondary school teaching in their current position, and additional comments about preparation for teaching in the community college. Personel officers at these institutions were surveyed on degrees they require for hiring biology and chemistry instructors, additional qualifications they seek in instructors, and whether they believe secondary school teaching experience to be of benefit for someone considering a community college teaching position.

Major concerns in hiring an instructor are a stong academic preparation in the teaching field and a second major or minor in a related science field. An additional concern is the ability to address the special needs of the diverse student population found in the community college setting. The instructors suggest that programs in science education can help teachers improve their instructional techniques, and 7 6% of the instructors who have taught in secondary schools indicate that this experience had been beneficial in their community college teaching.     

Instructor–Learner Interaction in Online Courses: The relative perceived importance of particular instructor actions on performance and satisfaction

This article examines the relative perceived importance of 19 instructor actions in online courses according to both instructors and students. The instructor actions were culled from guidelines in the online learning literature base and then reviewed and rated by 14 experts. Thirty‐two online instructors and 170 students from their classes at a large public university and a private online university were asked to review and rate these guidelines. Findings show that the instructors believe that learner performance is more likely tied to instructor actions that are focused on course content and provide both proactive (models, expectations) and reactive (feedback) information to learners about their ability to demonstrate knowledge of course material, but learner satisfaction is more likely tied to learners’ feeling that their interpersonal communication needs are met. Learners rated items focused on communication needs and being treated as individuals as most important, aligning their stated preferences with the instructors’ perceptions of what actions are most satisfying to online learners.     

Comparing student,instructor, classroom and institutional data to evaluate a seven-year department-wide science education initiative

We compared seven unrelated data-sets to evaluate a major education improvement initiative. Perceptions of students in 54 course sections were surveyed regarding the helpfulness of 39 specific teaching or learning strategies, and relative workloads and enthusiasm were compared to their other courses. Classes were observed using an established protocol, instructors completed a teaching practices inventory, and their experience with evidence-based pedagogies was established. A graduation exit survey provided longitudinal indications of changes prior to the study, and institutional student ratings of instruction were obtained. This study sought to determine whether improvements were consistently revealed by these data, how perceptions depended upon class size, course improvement model and instructor experience, and whether student ratings captured consistent perceptions about effectiveness. Overall, results compared favourably. Student perceptions and observed effectiveness depended mainly upon class size and improvement strategy. Students found experiences more effective in courses taught by experienced instructors and in classes observed to be more active. Relative workloads were not correlated with any measure of effectiveness while relative enthusiasm was higher in courses perceived to be more effective. Student ratings were consistent with other data-sets, although they did not provide information specific enough for informing further improvements.     

The role of the teaching assistant: Female role models in the classroom

We use a dataset of first-year engineering students from a selective research-intensive public university to examine the impact of same-gender teaching assistants on course grades and major field choice. Our sample consists of students who were randomly assigned to a section of an introductory engineering course and a graduate teaching assistant. Results suggest there may be small positive effects on course grades and the probability of majoring in a high-earning field for female students assigned to a female teaching assistant. Although the difference is marginally significant, the impact of a teaching assistant gender match for female students’ choice of a high-earning field is more pronounced in classrooms with a female instructor and above-median representation of female peers. Our results show limited evidence that female teaching assistants can provide the same benefits of a female instructor in STEM fields.     

The effect of authentic project-based learning on attitudes and career aspirations in STEM

Can engaging college students in client-centered projects in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) coursework increase interest in STEM professions? The current study explored the effectiveness of project-based learning (PjBL) courses on student attitudes, major choice, and career aspirations in STEM. Framed in expectancy-value and social cognitive career choice models, we examined the effect of engaging in at least one authentic, project-based course during the first four semesters of college on student STEM attitudes and career aspirations in a quasi-experimental study with a sample of (N = 492) natural science and engineering students. STEM self-efficacy and subjective task value variables (STEM attainment, intrinsic and utility value of STEM courses, and relative cost associated with engaging in STEM courses) were examined as mediators of the relationship between classroom project-based experiences and STEM career aspirations. Gender and underrepresented minority status were also examined. We found that engaging in at least one project-based course during the first four semesters affected student perceptions of STEM skills, perceptions of the utility value of participating in STEM courses, and STEM career aspirations. Furthermore, we found that the effect of project-based courses on STEM career aspirations was mediated by STEM skills and perceptions of course utility. The effect of PjBL was not moderated by race or gender. We highlight areas of future research and the promise of PjBL for engaging students in STEM professions.     

A Campus-Wide Study of STEM Courses: New Perspectives on Teaching Practices and Perceptions

At the University of Maine, middle and high school science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) teachers observed 51 STEM courses across 13 different departments and collected information on the active-engagement nature of instruction. The results of these observations show that faculty members teaching STEM courses cannot simply be classified into two groups, traditional lecturers or instructors who teach in a highly interactive manner, but instead exhibit a continuum of instructional behaviors between these two classifications. In addition, the observation data reveal that student behavior differs greatly in classes with varied levels of lecture. Although faculty members who teach large-enrollment courses are more likely to lecture, we also identified instructors of several large courses using interactive teaching methods. Observed faculty members were also asked to complete a survey about how often they use specific teaching practices, and we find that faculty members are generally self-aware of their own practices. Taken together, these findings provide comprehensive information about the range of STEM teaching practices at a campus-wide level and how such information can be used to design targeted professional development for faculty.     

The Impact of Developmental Mathematics Courses and Age,Gender, and Race and Ethnicity on Persistence and Academic Performance in Virginia Community Colleges

This research study examined the 2006 cohort of First-Time-in-College students from all 23 community colleges in Virginia. The goal was to examine fall-to-fall persistence and success in the first college-level mathematics course. Predictor variables used were developmental status, age, gender, and race and ethnicity of the student. Interaction variables were created to determine if age, race and ethnicity, or gender moderates the effects of developmental status for both persistence and success. And a model was created using all main and interaction predictor variables to determine to what extent each variable accounts for persistence and success. It was found that neither gender nor race and ethnicity moderates developmental status for either persistence or success, but age moderates both success and persistence. Developmental courses are more effective for traditionally aged students and developmental courses are positively related to the persistence of nontraditionally aged students and negatively related to the persistence of traditionally aged students. The predictor variables developmental status, age, race and ethnicity, and gender are all significantly related to both the success and persistence of students. The effect of developmental status on both success and persistence is weak. Nondevelopmental status, female, nontraditionally aged, and non-Black race and ethnicity are all positively related to the success of students. Nondevelopmental status, female, traditionally aged, non-White and non-Black race and ethnicities are all positively related to the fall-to-fall persistence of students.     

Bye bye Ms. American Sci: Women and the leaky STEM pipeline

More than two-thirds of STEM jobs are held by men. In this paper, I provide a detailed analysis of the STEM pipeline from high school to mid-career in the United States, decomposing the gender gap in STEM into six stages. Women are lost from STEM before college, during college, and after college. Men are more likely to be STEM-ready before college, scoring higher on science tests and having taken more advanced math and science courses. This accounts for 35% of the overall gender gap in STEM careers. During college, men are far more likely than women to start in a STEM major, accounting for 26% of the gap. After college, male STEM graduates are more likely to enter STEM jobs, accounting for 41%. Men’s higher persistence in STEM majors is a smaller factor, while women attend college at higher rates than men, which works to reduce the final gender gap in STEM. The results show that there is no single stage to focus on in understanding the gender gap in STEM.     

Student performance in off-campus programs

The quality of degree programs offered off-campus, particularly on military bases, has become an issue affecting many institutions of higher education. This study asked the question: Do students in off-campus programs perform as well as students in on-campus programs? As a basis for comparison, only courses taught on- and off-campus by the same instructor were chosen. Six courses, taught 37 times, by ten instructors, met these criteria. The subjects included the 649 undergraduate students from Southern Illinois University-Carbondale who received letter grades in these courses between 1975 and 1977. As a measure of performance, the grades of on- and off-campus students were compared by means of at-test. The mean grade of off-campus students (3.34) was not significantly different (at the .01 level) from that of on-campus students (3.29). As a control, faculty were interviewed to determine the equivalence in content and rigor of courses they taught in both settings. Faculty generally responded that their on- and off-campus courses were equivalent in content and rigor, supporting the use of grades as a measure of student performance. These results indicate that not only do faculty maintain their standards while teaching off-campus, but that the academic performance of off-campus students equals that of on-campus students.     

Written justifications to multiple-choice concept questions during active learning in class

Increasingly, instructors of large, introductory STEM courses are having students actively engage during class by answering multiple-choice concept questions individually and in groups. This study investigates the use of a technology-based tool that allows students to answer such questions during class. The tool also allows the instructor to prompt students to provide written responses to justify the selection of the multiple-choice answer that they have chosen. We hypothesize that prompting students to explain and elaborate on their answer choices leads to greater focus and use of normative scientific reasoning processes, and will allow them to answer questions correctly more often. The study contains two parts. First, a crossover quasi-experimental design is employed to determine the influence of asking students to individually provide written explanations (treatment condition) of their answer choices to 39 concept questions as compared to students who do not. Second, we analyze a subset of the questions to see whether students identify the salient concepts and use appropriate reasoning in their explanations. Results show that soliciting written explanations can have a significant influence on answer choice and, when it does, that influence is usually positive. However, students are not always able to articulate the correct reason for their answer.     

Breaking it Down: Engineering Student STEM Confidence at the Intersection of Race/Ethnicity and Gender

It is generally accepted that engineering requires a strong aptitude for mathematics and science; therefore, students’ judgments regarding their competence in these areas as well as engineering likely influence their confidence in engineering. Little is known about how self-confidence in science, mathematics, and engineering courses (STEM confidence) varies at the intersection of race/ethnicity and gender. To fill this gap, this study examined the STEM confidence of multiple groups in undergraduate engineering programs. Results indicated that although some underrepresented groups may have lower STEM confidence overall, this finding no longer applies to all groups after controlling for personal, environmental, and behavioral factors. Specifically, African-American and Hispanic men report higher average STEM confidence than White men after controlling for these associated measures. In addition, White women continue to report lower average STEM confidence than White men after controlling for these measures, while other groups do not differ from White men. Further, many elements of student perception, including student views of professors, comparisons to peers, perceptions of the field as rewarding, and desirability of chosen major are positively associated with student STEM confidence. The changing patterns of significance for race/ethnicity and gender groups between the two models indicate that personal, environmental, and behavioral factors have different relationships with STEM confidence levels for different groups. This study contributes an understanding that gender differences in STEM confidence are not indifferent to racial and ethnic context. Social-cognitive theory provides a valuable framework for studying student academic confidence and would improve future self-confidence research.